
Book -^.' ''' 



^jmm° ^"^ ^^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON 



THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE 
OLD TESTAMENT 



BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER 



THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN 
THE OLD TESTAMENT 

AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY 



FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES 



WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER 

PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATDRE8 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



Revised and Enlarged Edition 



Constructive Bible Studies 
college series 



CHICAGO 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
1905 



a 






LIBRARY of OO-NSStSS 
Two Copies deceived 

iVIAR 11 1905 
Jjopw-igfu £.!!iry 

CILASS Ct- XAC. Noj 
COPY 6. 



Copyright igo2, igo^ 
By The University of Chicago 



PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 

This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is 
intended to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the 
questions relating to the subject from an historical point of view. The 
materials for a preliminary study of the various topics are gathered 
together, and arranged with suggestions as to order and method of 
procedure. 

It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more 
mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and 
theological students have been kept especially in mind. 

The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken 
as a basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of his- 
tory that these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each 
special topic connected with the general subject of the Priestly Ele- 
ment furnishes a beautiful illustration of the growth and development 
of Israelitish and Jewish thought under the controlling influence of a 
conception of God which became more and more pure with the 
advancing centuries. 

Four methods of treatment have been employed, each being 
deemed best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a sys- 
tematic statement of the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters 
II-IV, an historical statement covering in barest outline the story 
of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its progress and development ; 
in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative examination (indi- 
cated by questions and suggestions based upon the material presented) 
of the more important special factors which, taken together, con- 
stitute the Priestly Element; in Chapters XII-XIX, a critical exam- 
ination of the literature produced by the Priests, and of its 
essential significance. The appendix on the vocabulary of wor- 
ship will be found serviceable to those who wish to enter somewhat 
carefully into a consideration of the details. In Appendix B there 
will be found a classified list of the most important books, while in 
Appendix C the more valuable recent literature (since 1901) has been 
indicated. 

Some experience in the use of this manual in the class-room seems 
to indicate that it furnishes an opportunity whereby both instructor 



VI PREFACE 

and pupil may work with greatest freedom. It is not a text-book; nor 
is it merely a syllabus. It may be adapted to almost every possible 
method of teaching. 

An effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the 
more accessible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreci- 
ation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P. 
Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural 
references, and the references to the literature on the various topics. 
For obvious reasons the latter have been arranged chronologically, the 
literature in languages other than English being placed by itself. 

In this more complete form (Chapters XII-XIX and the Appen- 
dixes, constituting the new matter added to the first edition) it is 
hoped that an outline has been prepared which will assist many 
students in their desire to gain a reasonable familiarity with a really 
large and complex subject. 

William R. Harper. 

JFebruary 22, igo^- 



CONTENTS. 



Part I. 

THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 

Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i 

Part II. 

THE HISTORY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT, 

Chapter II. — The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13 
Chapter III. — The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27 
Chapter IV. — The history of worship in the later Old Testament period . . . 42 

Part III. 

a comparative study of THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP. 

Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara- 
tively 61 

Chapter VT. — The laws and usages concerning the place of worship, con- 
sidered comparatively 74 

Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara- 
tively 83 

Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara- 
tively 94 

Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti- 
tutions, considered comparatively 108 

Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered 

comparatively 119 

Chapter XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of 

worship, considered comparatively 131 

Part IV. 

THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP — THE LEGAL LITERATURE. 

Chapter XII. — The Deuteronomic code of laws 155 

Chapter XIII. — Ezekiel's contribution 170 

Chapter XIV.— The priestly code of laws 180 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

Part V. 

THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP — THE HISTORICAL LITERATURE. 

Chapter XV. — The priestly narrative in the Hexateuch 195 

Chapter XVI.— The books of Chronicles 208 

Chapter XVII. — The books of Ezra and Nehemiah 218 

Part VI. 

THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP — THE HYMNAL LITERATURE. 
Chapter XVIII. — The priestly element in the Psalter 233 

Part VII. 

THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 
Chapter XIX. — The essential significance of the priestly element 257 

Appendixes. 

A. The vocabulary of worship; lists of the more important words 273 

B. Classified lists of important books 280 

C. New literature on the priestly element 282 



CHAPTER I. 

THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

§1. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli- 
gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi- 
nence given to one or another of these elements : 

(i) Worship, or, more technically, cult, a word which Pss. 103:1; 150. 
expresses the general attitude of the individual or group 
of individuals toward an outside higher world of super- 
natural or divine existence, and includes the outward 
acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought. 

(2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut. 6:4; 
^ ./' ' ^' John 3 136. 

expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained 
by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer- 
tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana- 
tion. 

(3) Conduct, or, more technically, ethics, which includes Mic. 6:8; 

1, 1 1 f 1- r ' r 1 ^sa. 1:16, 17; 

all the acts and feelings of man m so far as they are James 1:27. 

related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and 

to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong. 

§2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in 
the Old Testament ; through these, separately and 
together, there has come down to us a wonderful story 
of the interworking of God and man. These are : 

(i) The word of the prophet, including the utter- Jer. 18:18; 
ances through centuries of that unique order established 
to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the 
"word" of God. 

(2) The counsel of the saffe, includina: the wise say- Jer. 18:18: 

'=> ^ J Prov. 1 :5, 25, 

ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14. 

riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the 

books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. 

(3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18; 
the subject of consideration in this and the following 
studies. 

§3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed. 
— In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



I Kings 14 : 23 ; 
I Chron. 21 129; 
Exod. 19:2,3, 12. 

Gen. 12:6; 13:18. 



Gen. 16:13, 14- 



Gen. 31:44-54; 
Gen. 28:18-22. 



Exod. 20:24-26; 

1 Kings 7:48; 

2 Kings 16:10-15; 
Exod. 27:1-8; 

I Kings 2:28-30. 



Josh. 4:11; 

1 Sam. 4:3-6; 

2 Sam. 6:2-17; 
Exod. 25:10-21; 
Exod. 25:22. 



2 Sam. 7: 2-6; 
Exod., chap. 26; 
Exod. 33: 7-9; 
Numb. 17: 4,12,13. 



I Kings 6: 1, 2,11- 

14, 37, 38; 
Ezek. 43:1-12; 
Hag. 1:4-14; 
Ezra 3: 12, 13; 

6:13-18. 



places were more favored by the gods than were others, in 
modern times because men fancy that a certain environ- 
ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the 
place has always been a subject of greatest importance. 
The place was in early days something connected with 
nature : 

(i) High places, or hills, were especially sought as 
being the abode of God. 

(2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred 
to as connected with worship. 

(3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which 
angels were thought to dwell. 

(4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places \o which 
the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food 
was placed or libations of oil poured out. 

In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres- 
ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or 
spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22:41 it is to 
be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among 
other nations; cf. also Isa. 16 : 12.) 

The place was also often something of a more or less 
artificial ch.2ir3.c\.Qr, as is seen in the use of — 

(5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose 
earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still 
others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the 
refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven- 
geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac- 
rifice was laid. 

(6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain 
sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of 
war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and 
was designated as a place of communion with God. 

(7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the 
ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa- 
tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and 
it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought 
and tradition. 

(8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization 
(the establishment of courts and the building of palaces) 
took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3 

a tent There was {a) Solomon's temple, erected at a 
significant period of national development; (3) the tem- 
ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an 
important part in the history of Israel's religious 
thought ; and (c) the second temple, erected with some 
disappointment, after the return from exile. 

It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:2-5; 
God is sought and obtained in connection with natural 
places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places 
constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will 
be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men 
are scattered, groups living here and there, when the 
realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and 
the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and 
churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still 
another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity 
for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen 
powers. 

§ 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second 
necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the 
priest vi\iO conducted the worship. 

(i) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8; 
minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest iSiVe"; * 

1 1 <■ 1 • , . , , , . I'CV. 8:i-io. 

times the need of havmg some such priest was felt, his 
presence being thought to be attended with peculiar 
blessing. 

(2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2; 
the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra7!2i, 25, 26, 
or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other 

nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit 
on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a 
hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact 
shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish 
history. 

(3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and i Kings 18:19-22; 
spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's EzeKiil'te.^' 
history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to 

the service of other gods. 

§ 5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship 
in ancient times. 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Gen.iS: i-8; 
I Sam. 1 : 3-8; 

9:23-25; 
I Chron. 16:1-3. 



Ps. 51:18,19; 
Isa. i: 11-17; 
Lev., chaps. 1-7; 

8-10; 11; 12-15; 

etc. 



Gen. 8:20; 
Lev., chaps. 4>9- 



Lev. 3:1-6; 
Judg. 20: 26. 



Gen. 35:14; 
Exod. 29: 40, 41; 
Numb. 28: 7- 

Exod. 30:1, 7-9; 
Numb. 4:16. 



Lev., chaps. 5, 7, 

14; 
Numb. 6:12. 



(i) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which 
the offerer and his friends participated and to which the 
deity was invited. There are frequent references to such 
sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of 
a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal 
was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par- 
ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was 
a communion of the worshiper and his god. 

(2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and 
gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. The 
prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true 
spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a 
proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The 
book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice, 
viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal 
and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to 
prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history. 

(3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice 
were distinguished, according as each expressed a par- 
ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ; 
among these were : 

{a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning 
of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an 
offering to Jehovah. 

{h) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri- 
fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it 
provided for the giving of only the blood and certain 
specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being 
eaten by the sacrificial guests. 

(c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine, 
or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings. 

(d) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were 
burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was 
acceptable to Jehovah. 

{e) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur- 
pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in 
which the damage could be estimated and covered by 
compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out 
to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest 
was the perquisite of the priests. 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5 

(/) The sin-offerings which occupied a very important Lev. 4:24-34; 

place in the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap.'?; 

15 : 27. 
upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature ; 

the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com- 
plete and detailed. 

{g) The wave-offering, consisting of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17; ^ 
of the sacrifice that were e^iven over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29;' 

Exod. 29:27, 28. 

were waved by them before the altar as a token of the 
fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given 
over by him to the priests. 

(4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24; 

29: 40; 30: 1 ; 
might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2:1, 4, 13; 

7: 12; 23:13. 
fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough, 

salt. Here again important conceptions were associated 

with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted 

prescribing the exact character and amount of materials 

to be used. 

§ 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i Sam. 9: 12, 13 
these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam.i:3,4- 
the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con- 
nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec- 
tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising, 
as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men 
whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn 
together, and in the act of association there is worship ; 
lor the more closely they are united, the nearer they may 
come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship 
him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that 
which involves communion with others as well as with 
God. 

(i) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. 23 : 14-17. 
the springtime, the second in the early summer, the 
third in the autum^i. These correspond roughly to 
the more modern Kaster, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving 
seasons. 

(2) There were also special feasts and feast days, Hos.2:ii. 
which in early tin^^s seem to have been of a joyous 
character. 

(3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:29-34. 
which were days of affliction rather than of joy. 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Zech. 7:3-5; 
Esther 9: 28-31. 



Gen. 24: 12 fr.; 
I Sam. I :io; 8:6; 
I Kings 8:23-53; 
Isa. 38:2, 3; 
Weh. 1:4-11; 2: 4- 



Judg. 11:30-39; 
I Sam. i:ii; 
Judg. 13:3-7; 
Wumb. 6: 1-12. 



I Kings 6:19; 
Exod. 28:30; 
Gen. 20:3; 28:10, 
18. 



Isa. 47:9; 
Jer.27:9; 
Mai. 3:5; 
Dan. 2:2; 
Deut. 18:9-13. 



Gen. 4:21; 
Amos 5:23; 
Isa. 30:29, 32; 
Jer. 48:36; 
Numb, 10: 2; 

31:6; 
Josh. 6: 4ff ; 
Pss. 137:2; 33; 
2 Sam. 16: 14; 
Exod. 15: 20; 
Pss. 149: 3; 150: 



(4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days, 
celebrating some great calamity. 

§ 7. Other Acts of Worship. — In connection with and 
forming a part of worship were several specific acts, 
such as — 

(i) Prayer; this "was always implied in the act of 
sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of 
sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter- 
est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to 
them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ; 
and also when in joy they express appreciation of some 
great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer 
for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic 
of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and 
is thoroughly typical of humanity. 

(2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in 
ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio- 
lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other 
times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice 
of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite, 
it signified setting apart to the service of God. 

(3) The oracle a.nd dream, as methods of ascertaining 
the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In 
these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not 
differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of 
whom they dwelt. 

(4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there 
were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters 
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers ; but acts 
of this kind were always forbidden. 

(5) Music 2ind dancing were accompaniments of wor- 
ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com- 
munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm, 
sound and movement. Music has always formed a part 
of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied, 
not only festival, but worship. 

§ 8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us, 
perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work; for, 
although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character, 
by far the greater part is the high and holy expression 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT ^ 

of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com- 
munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may 
religious songs of so tender and deep a character be 
found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the 
Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These 
have been variously and quite minutely classified; but 
here reference may be limited to — 

(i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136. 
expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his 
praises are gladly sung. 

(2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102. 
pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of 

himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty 
and danger, or restoration to divine favor. 

(3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130. 
ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt. 

§ 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise, 
largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the 
priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was 
the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or 
sages. The priest's work included something more than 
the various elements which enter into or are connected 
with what we would today call worship. In those days 
the religious life and the secular life were the same. 
Religion and politics were the same. This means that 
it was impossible to draw a line between religious life 
and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12; 

111 111 1 Exod. 21:1-35; 

had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27. 

ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds, 

the building of a house. There were laws, for example. Lev. 19:9-37; 

, , 1 . r 1 , Exod. 23 : 1-9. 

concernmg the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the 
treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These 
are a few examples only, taken from the great law- 
books, Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be 
understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from 
time to time formulated, included the teachings of the 
prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work 
and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci- 
ological character there were the laws which regulated 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Exod. 23:18, ig; 
Deut. 30:15-20; 
Lev., chap. 21. 



2Chron.5: 2—7:2; 
cf. I Kings, 
chap. 8, 



I Chron. 
i5» 16; 



chaps. 



2 Chron. 35:1-19 
cf. 2 Kings 
23:21-23, 



the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his 
dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc., 
etc. These more strictly come into consideration in 
connection with topics already discussed {cf. §§3, 7). 

§ 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or 
compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the 
priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel, 
as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already 
been written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared 
c/. 2 Sam. 6: 12-19. from a wholly prophetic point of view. It was intended 
2 Chron. chaps. ^^ teach prophetic lessons, especially those connected 
c/lKiigs, chaps, ^^^h the idea of the enormity of sin and its disastrous 
^^"^°' consequences. At a later date (about 300 B. C.) the 

priests undertook to traverse the field of sacred history, 
and in so doing used, to some extent, the same original 
sources. This priestly history is found in the books of 
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In these books the 
thought always uppermost is that of the history of worship. 
Its purpose was to assist in establishing regular service 
in the second temple, and to kindle in the hearts of the 
people a national life and spirit, and respect for the insti- 
tutions of the national religion. The differences in matter, 
tone, and spirit between the prophetic and the priestly 
histories is easily seen by a comparison of the treatment 
which each gives to the same subject, e. g.: 

(i) The dedication of the temple (^/. 2 Chron. 5:2 — 
7:10). 

(2) The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem. 

(3) The accession of Solomon. 

(4) The account of the plague in David's reign. 

(5) The sin of David with Bathsheba, which is not 
mentioned in Chronicles. 

(6) The organization of the priests and Levites and 
temple officials, which is treated in full in Chronicles, 
and not mentioned in Samuel and Kings. 

It is proposed, after this general view of the work of the priests as a 
whole, to undertake to do five things in the following series of studies : 

(i) To trace the history of worship from the beginning to the end 
of the Old Testament times, through the early, the middle, and the 
late periods. 



I Kings, chap. 8. 



I Chron., chaps. 

28, 29; 
cf. I Kings 1 : 32- 

40. 

1 Chron., chap. 21; 
cf 2 Sam., chap. 

24. 

2 Sam. 11:2-27. 



I Chron., chaps 
23-26. 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 9 

(2) To classify and note the elements of worship in the Hebrew 
Psalter, the Christian's Book of Psalms. 

(3) To analyze and present the essential points of interest in the 
histories which the priests themselves prepared, and which are found 
in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. 

(4) To determine the great ideas which entered into and controlled 
the priest-work. 

(5) To explain as far as it may be possible (a) the purpose and 
spirit of \}[i\% priest- element 2iS it appears in its various forms in Israel- 
itish history and literature ; {p) the permanent, as distinguished from 
the transitory, elements which it contained; {c) the contribution which 
it made to Christianity, or, in other words, its relationship to Chris- 
tianity. 



Paet Second 

THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP 

II. History of Worship in the Earlier Old Testament Period. 

III. History of Worship in the Middle Old Testament Period. 

IV. History of Worship in the Later Old Testament Period. 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIODo 

§11. Worship Alone Constituted Religion in the earliest times. It 
was later that greater and greater emphasis came to be placed on co?i- 
{/ucf and belief (see § i). A ceremony or religious rite was associated 
(in the various ancient religions) with some fact, or supposed fact, or 
legend, or myth. But it was the rite which constituted the religious 
element, and not any belief concerning the origin of the rite. "It 
made no difference what the worshiper believed concerning the cere- 
mony, if only he performed it regularly and accurately." " What was 
obligatory or meritorious was the exact performance of sacred acts 
prescribed by religious traditions." It was the prophets and sages 
who introduced at the same time higher conceptions of God and 
higher conceptions of life. 

See W. R. SMrrH, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 17-22 ; Menzies, His- 
tory of Religion, ^'^. 6-13, 64 f.; Wellhausen, /y<?/^g^i?w^«fl to the History of Israel y 
pp. 52-5- 

§ 12. A Semitic Period in the Development of Worship preceded the 
earliest Hebrew worship, and formed the basis of it. It will be 
remembered that the Semitic family (i) gave to the world the two 
earliest civilizations of which we have knowledge, the Egyptian and 
the old Babylonian, and controlled the world's political history for 
forty or fifty centuries ; (2) has been mediary, not only in the field of 
commerce and between man and man, but also, in that higher field of 
religion, between God and man, in that they have proved to be the 
religious teachers of the world, since through them have come the 
world's three highest faiths — Judaism, Christianity, and Moham- 
medanism. 

See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28 ff.; W. R. 
Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-83; C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient 
Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 22-30; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy 
and the Monuments^ Vol. I, pp. 5-1 1 ; Fritz Hommel, The Civilization of the East ^ 
pp. 25-7. 

§ 1 3. The Most Ancient Form of Semitic Religion, the parent of all 
others, was that found in the old mother-home of Arabia. It was a 

13 



14 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

religion well adapted to the condition of the people, who, at that time, 
were still in clans. The Hebrews, together with the Moabites, Ammon- 
ites, and Edomites, had " their root in a state of society when there 
was no large and orderly community, but only a multitude of small 
and restless tribes; when there was no written law, but only custom; 
and when there was no central authority to execute justice, but it 
was left to a man's fellow-clansmen to avenge his murder." In this 
time — 

(i) There was a god for each clan^ and this god was thought to be a 
very remote ancestor. To leave the clan meant to, leave the god. This 
clan-god was closely connected with every undertaking of the clan, 
whether of peace or war; and his name everywhere was "Lord," 
"King," "Mighty One." 

See Menzies, History of Religion^ pp. 74-6 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the 
Semites (2d ed.), pp. 35-9 ; D'Alviella, Origin and Growth of the Conception of God 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1891), pp. 204-7. 

(2) The worship of the clan-god was important, because every 
detail of life was dependent on his favor. His favor or anger was 
shown at certain spots, which thenceforward became sacred places, and 
here those who inquired of him would find him. The god could not, 
of course, be worshiped anywhere outside of the land which belonged to 
him ; and if one left that land and entered another, he must at once 
transfer his worship to the god of the new land. 

See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 160 f.; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 
53-5. 

(3) 7%(?/r^j^«////^ played a larger part than the future life ; for, 
while the early Semites believed in the continued existence of the 
departed, they regarded them as destitute of energy, as " shades laid 
in the ground." "After death, it was held, even religion came to an 
end. A man must enjoy the society of his god in this life; after 
death he could take part in no sacrifice, and could render to God no 
thanks or service." 

See Menzies, op. cit., p. 161 ; C. G. Montefiore, op. cit, pp. 454-7; R. H. 
Charles, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 51-4. 

(4) This explains, in some measure, the rites of worship which 
existed in these primitive times, viz.: 

{a) The sacrifice; the man sought a sacred place (/. e., a place 
where the god was likely to be found), killed an animal, put the blood 
of the animal on a stone ; the god touched the blood, the man touched 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD I 5 

it, and this act was a renewal of the declaration that the man and the 
god were of the same blood, and that the covenant between them was 
renewed. 

See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 65-8, 162; Schultz, "The Significance of Sacri- 
fice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV, pp. 257-61 ; 
G. S. GooDSPEED, "The Atonement of Communion," Biblical World, Vol. XVII, 
pp. 96-106. 

{b) The feast or banquet; at this the god was supposed to sit with 
his people and to receive his share of the animal just slain. In late 
times, when the god was thought to live above, his share was burned 
and he received the savor or smell of the sacrifice. The feast included 
dancing, and even gross kinds of indulgence. All was joyful. Happi- 
ness, reaching even to ''orgiastic ecstasy," was universal. 

See W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 253-8 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 
I, pp. 188 f. 

§14. Three Great Periods are seen in the develop- Josh. 24:2,3. 
ment of this primitive Semitic worship, as it appears in 
the Old Testament history. Two opinions exist as to 
whether the writing of the Pentateuch (or five books of 
the law) was practically finished in the days of Moses, or 
in the days of Ezra. 

See Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, pp. 31-58; 
Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897, pp. 156-62; 
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), 
pp. 82-98, 123-6, 135-59; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, 
The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 17-23. 

This question does not concern us here ; for all stu- 
dents agree that, whatever may have been the date of 
writing, the date of adoption of the laws and ceremonies 
by the masses of the people is definitely announced in , 
Scripture, viz.: 

(i) The Levitical law in all its fulness and the Leviti- Neh., chap. 8. 
cal ritual of worship were not adopted until the times of 
Ezra (440 B. C). 

(2) The Deuteronomic law, as laid down in Deuter- 2 Kings 22: 8— 

23 ; 3. 

onomy, did not come into force until Josiah's time (621 
B. C). It is clear that there was 

(3) An earlier legal code and an earlier form of wor- Exod. 20:23- 

23 ; 10, 

ship which served to connect the old Semitic worship 
with the Deuteronomic. This earliest of the three 



10 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

periods is first to be considered and presents itself in 
three different stages, viz.: 
Gen. 47:1-10. (a) The primitive Hebrew stage — that which existed 

during the days of the patriarchs, and while Israel was 
still a nomadic people, wandering from place to place. 

judg. 1:1-4; U)) The Canaanitish stage — that in which the primi- 

2:11-19. 

tive form came into contact with the corrupt and licen- 
tious practices of the Canaanitish religion; it was at this 
time that Israel was settling down to an agricultural life. 
Hos. 11:1-4; {c) The prophetic stage — that in which the prophets 

Amos 2:10-12; made heroic struggle against the corruption and idola- 

Isa.. 2 : 6—9. 

try of Israel, by pointing out a truer conception of God, 
the adoption of which affected both the conduct and the 
worship of the nation. 

Josh. 24:3-7. § 15. In the Primitive Stage of the Early Period the 

Worship was, of course, only slightly different from that 
common Semitic worship described above. The people 
were still wandering about. Leaders had been raised up 
by God whose work would in time lead the people 
higher and higher toward a proper conception of 
God and of his worship. But, as the Old Testament 
so clearly shows, the people hung back; refused to 
follow the divinely appointed leaders ; and only after 
fifteen hundred years of instruction finally acknowledged 
Jehovah to be the only God. The facts concerning 
worship are these : 

Gen. 12:6-8; (i) 73^^ //^^^ selected for worship by the patriarchs 

26:24!;' was the place in which they pitched their tent; e. g., 

35:14! ' Abraham worshiped at Shechem, and near Bethel; Jacob 

at Beersheba, and at Peniel, and at Bethel. Trees, 

springs, and stones are also mentioned. 

Gen. 31:46. The a/tar must have been something very simple, 

consisting only of stones gathered together, or of earth 
thrown up. 

Gen. 31 : 19, 34 ! Teraphim, or household gods, were found in Jacob's 

family. There seems not to have been an ark or chest 
in use. 

Gen. 22:13; 27:25; (2) The priest was the leader, whoever he may have 

Exod. 24:4-8. been, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or Moses. There was no 
class of priests. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 7 

(-i) The sacrifice was a family meal, or a clan meal, /. e., Gen. 26:28-30; 
\^' J J ' ' ' Gen. 8:20, 21; 

a banquet. It consisted of flesh, specially prepared ; its Gen. 18:1-8. 

savor was smelled by Jehovah ; it was eaten by repre- 
sentatives of the deity. 

(4) 77/^ //w^j were irregular ; sacrifice was offered at c/. references 

rr^, . r , , r gi^en above. 

any time. There is no reference to the observance or 

dates marked by the moon, or of the sabbath. 

(5) Other acts of worship are seen in — 

(a) The prayer of Abraham for the deliverance of Gen. 18:23-33; 

24 : 12 ff . ; 32 :9- 

Lot, of Abraham's servant for guidance in the pursuit of 12. 
his mission, and of Jacob for deliverance from Esau. 

(^) The vow of Abraham paid to Melchizedek; and Gen. 14:18-24; 

28 : 20-22. 

that of Jacob made on his journey to Laban, the Syrian. 

U) The dreams oi the patriarchs, which as methods Gen. 15:12-21: 

, . . . . r 11- 1 28 : 10-18 ; 35 : g- 

of receiving communications from the deity are to be 13; 37:5-10. 
classed with acts of worship. 

(//) The cup of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44: i-s- 
(see p. 16). 

(6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history -writing had Gen. 49:1-26: 

, , ,, , , Exod. 15: 1-18; 

not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod. 20:1-17. 

not come down to us in the form which existed in these 

early days. The present literary form of pieces like 

the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red 

Sea," and the " Decalogue" comes from a time later 

than the settlement in Canaan. 

§ 16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the Judg. 2:1-5. 
worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the 
change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to 
contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were 
peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the 
Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to 
see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing 
justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible 
honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his 
neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that 
was Canaanitish was now appropriated. 

(i) Places and representatives ; here arise — 

(a) The high places, all over the land, which soon Judg. 6:25-33; 
, , . 1 ,. . I Sam. 1:3. 

became centers of corruption and licentiousness. 



1 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

judg. 3:7; 6:25, ib) Th.Q pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which 

30; 9:6; 10:6. 

were to be found at the high places and were talcen over into 

the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places. 
Judg. 2o:27f.; [c) The ark or chesl, which was thought to represent 

the deity, and which the people carried with them when 

they went to battle, as in Eli's days. 
Cf. Exod. 32:8, (d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was 

Numb. 21:8 f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of 

deity. 
I Sam. 14:41; W The Urim and Thummim, which were carried in a 

^ ■^~ ■ pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of 

discovering the divine will with reference to any course 

of action. 
Judg. 17: 7; (2) The priest was sometimes a professional, bearing 

20; " ' ' the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional 

Judg. 6 rig; 13: 19; * 

17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recoa^nized as a Levite. He 
11:31, 39. 

seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch 

or oldest son, wh o in the past had performed priestly duties. 
The priest went about wherever he could find employ- 
ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and 
sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests. 

Judg. 6:19-21,26- (t\ Sacrifice vfB.?, the same as before, an act of com- 

28; 13:16-23; ^^^ -^ 

I Sam. 1:3-5, 9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to 



13-15- 



have occupied a more prominent place. 



1 Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of 

18, 24, 27, 29; ^ ^ 

Judg. 9:27 ;2i:i9; the moon; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a 

I Sam. 1:3, 13. ' r y 

time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest 
and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul- 
tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for 
drunkenness and licentiousness. 

(k) Other acts. — We read of the — 
Judg. 13:8; ^^ 

15:18; iSam. (a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah. 

I : 10, 12-17. 

Judg. 11:30, 31, {b) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the 

35-40; 21:1, 7, i-j-ii^gg Qf Israel against Benjamin, because of its outrage 

am. I. II. upon the Levite's concubine. 

Judg. 13:3-5, ic) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child 

9-21 ; 

iSam. 3:1-18. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh. 

I Sam. 28 : 7-14. {d) Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's 

attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the 

Philistines. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9 

(e) Music and daricins' in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21; 

^ ^ '^ -^ -^ I Sam. 10:5; 

feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16 : 16-22 ; 18 :6, 

7, 10; 19:9. 
later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of 

the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times. 

(6) Sonsrs and hymns are seen in the exodus song, Exod. 15:1-21; 
^ ^ * "^ Judg., chap. 5; 

with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of i sam. 2:1-10. 

Hannah. 

(7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under 

divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what 

extent this was true is a matter of dispute between {a) 

those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it 

has come down to us, was the work of one generation, 

and of one man, Moses, and {b) those who believe that 

this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries 

of history, although based upon and growing out of the 

work of Moses {cf. references to literature on § 14). 

§ 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5; 
-a ^ 1 ^ J •£ ^u Hos.,chap.4; 

influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- isa., chap. i. 

tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teach 
a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a 
higher type of worship. This period begins roughly 
with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before 
Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2 Kings 23:1-3. 
the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and 
Jonah ; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last 
of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor- 
mation came. The details of this reformation belong to 
the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23: 4-14. 
the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the 
prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac- 
tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us 
first note what they were and then the attitude of the 
prophets toward them. 

(i) Places of worship. 

(a) The high places were still used in different parts iSam. 9:12-14, 
of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom iKmgs'3:3, 4; 
Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- i2':3Vf.';i4:23; 
mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; ^ir'g^ii', 
of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc.^^' ^ '*' 
later kings ; and of Ahaz. 



20 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

1 Kings 14: 23; (b) The pillars and As herim occM-oiQd. evtn a largfer 

2 Kings 3:2; 1 1 1. r 

10:27; 17:10; place than before, contmuins^ in s:eneral use until the 

Hos.3:4; 10:1,2. . r X • 1 

reign of Josiah. 
2 Sam., chap. 6; (c) The ark was transferred with arreat solemnity 

cf. I Chron. , ^ , , 1 

chaps. 13, 15, 16. to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the 
nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was 
accompanied by music and dancing. 

1 Kings, chaps. 5, {d) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was 

63 7 • 13 — 8:66; 

cf.\ Chron., full of significance for the future history of worship, 
chap. 17 ; 22 : 2- -^ ^ 

19; As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his 

2 Chron., chaps. , _r ^ 

a-7. temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ- 

ized ; a basis was furnished for future development ; 
priests and singers must be provided for regular service. 
While at this central place the worship would henceforth 
be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with 
luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all 
its corruption throughout the country at large. 
I Sam. 28: 1-25. (^) The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim (/. e., God), 

was thought to have been called forth after death by the 
witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request. 
I Kings 12: 25-33; (/) The calves set up at Bethel and Gilgal were figures 

Hos. 8:5, e'. ' ' of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of 
the north, in order that they might not be induced to go 
to Jerusalem for worship. 

1 Kings 12: 31-33; (2) The priest now became a more important person- 

2 Sam. 6: 13, 14; \ / ^ 

I Kings 3: 15; age; the professional element increased. The bond 

1 Kings 2:26, 27; , , -, . , 1 11 

2 Kings II : 4, 9, between those engaged in the same work was strengthened 
2Kingsi6:'i2-i6.' by association. The Levite was gaining ground, as over 

against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required 
professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his 
time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation 
of the state and church. With the royal sanction the 
priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king 
maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar- 
chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was 
judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were 
to become law. 

1 Kings 8 : 62-65 ; (3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great 
Exod. 23:18!; scale; the old idea of communion with God continued; 

and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of 

2 Kings 17: 17. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 21 

joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened 
bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for. 
Sometimes human sacrifice was offered. 

(4) Times were now more definitely fixed. ||J^; ^ijj. 
{a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- ^^^i^^^\\^^.^ 

ever may have been its origin. le-is.^' ^' 

{p) The beginnings of a sabbatical year y^^x^ made, Exod. 23:10, n. 

in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every 

seveHth year. 

ic\ Three agricultural /f^j/j, with dates dependent Exod. 23:14-17; 

^' ° -^ ^ Exod. 34:22, 23; 

upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of i Kings 8:2; 

^ 12:32; 

Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the Hos. 2:11. 

departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the 

first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering, 

in the autumn. 

(5) Other acts. 

{a\ Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of i sam. 7:5, 8, 9; 

\ f -^ 8:6; 12:23; 

Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's 2 Sam. 7:18-28; 
demand for a kinff : of David, after Nathan had made 1 Kings'8 : 22-54 ; 

" I Kings 17:20-22; 

known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house 18:36,37; 

^ ^ 2 Kings 19 : 15-19. 

in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's 
child ; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the 
temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the 
widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel ; and of Heze- 
kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib. 

{S) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case ^Sam. 15:7, 8; 
of Absalom, and of the Nazirites. 

{c) (^r^z^/ifi- ««^ ^r<?«;;2i' are seen in David's inquiry of aSam. 2:1; 5:23, 
Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle ^Sain. 7:4; 

•' iKingS3:5ff-; 

with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's 22:5-28; 

message to David through Nathan; in Solomon's dream Amos 7:1-9; 

8 : 1 If. ; 

atGibeon; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before isa.,chap. 6. 
advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead ; and in the use made 
of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of 
Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con- 
nection. 

(^) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed J ^am. 28:3-20; 
by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to Mic. 5:". 
have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later 
prophets. 



22 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



1 Sam. 10:5; 
Amos 5 : 23 ; 6:5; 

2 Sam. 6:5, 14, 
16; 

Isa. 30:29; 
I Kings 1 : 4°- 



1 Sam. 18 : 7 ; 

2 Sam. 1:19-27; 
2 Sam. 3:33f. ; 

18:33; 
2 Sam. , chap. 22 
=Ps. 18. 



Amos 7:9; 
Hos. 10:8; 
Mic. 1:5; 
I Kings 14:22,23. 



Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1 

6:9; 
Mic. 3:"; 
Zeph. 3:4. 



Amos4:4; 5:22; 
Hos. 4:13, 14; 
12:11; 13:2; 



Amc 

6: 

Hos 


►s 5:21 
4-6; 
. 2:11 ; 


■ » 




Isa. 


i: 13, 


14. 




Isa. 
Mic 


1:15; 
.3:4. 






Isa. 


8:19; 


19: 


:3. 



(<?) Music and dancing y^^xQ greatly developed in con- 
nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places, 
and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which 
contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of 
Jehovah. 

(6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character, 
as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of 
Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of 
Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at 
other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David 
sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but 
see §19). 

§ 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac- 
tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests, 
was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many 
times that — 

(i) The high places were an- occasion of sin, and 
aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed. 
They were one of the most effective channels of corrup- 
tion to the worshipers of Jehovah. 

(2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek- 
ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest 
extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry- 
ing the people down to destruction along with them- 
selves. 

(3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the 
people were multiplying offerings with the thought that 
this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless- 
ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to 
him. 

(4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of 
orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These 
were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship, 
and were not yet wholly purified. 

(5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and 
frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were 
evil, and their hands red with blood. 

(6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and 
regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should 
be given to Jehovah. 



WORSHIP I« EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23 

§ 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the 
most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study. 
Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod- 
uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner 
as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses ; 
and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for 
gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that most of 
the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a 
later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's 
times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become 
pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of 
them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong 
side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of 
spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have 
existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques- 
tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the 
case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been 
the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they 
could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of 
their spiritual communion with God, until {a) the prophets had preached 
long centuries, {p) the priests themselves had united to purge and 
purify a corrupt worship, {c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and 
the land laid waste, {d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for- 
eign country, and {e) the nation was taught, once for all, what had 
many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was 
one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests' 
work will receive further consideration in a later chapter. 

See EwALD, Commentary on the Psahns, Vol. I, pp. 60-71 ; Perowne, Book of 
Psalms (second edition), Vol.1, pp. 1-2 1 ; Murray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, 
pp. 127-43; Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter, pp. 190-225; 
KiRKPATRiCK, The Psalms {Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver, 
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley, 
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in 
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible and Cheyne's Encyclopcedia Biblica. 

The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number 
of psalms that may be assigned to David are : 

(i) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition. 

(2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none. 

(3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14. 

(4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, II, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, loi, and some fragments. 

(5) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30, 32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some 
others doubtful. 



24 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Ezod. 20:1-17; 
Peut. 5:6-21; 
Exod. 34: 10-28 
Ezod. 20:23 — 
23:33- 



(6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been 
written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi- 
vidual " to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly 
also Kirkpatrick. 

§20. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified 
under three heads : the decalogue, in two editions ; the 
small book of the covenant ; and the larger book of the 
covenant. Before considering these separately, a few 
points may be suggested concerning them as a whole : 

(a) However early or late they may have taken on 
their present literary form, they themselves certainly go 
back to the period of Israel's earliest history. 

(3) They contain much material which, of course, had 
an existence long before the days of Moses ; e. g., there 
had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries 
before Moses. 

{c) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed, 
primitive stage of society; but this stage is the agricul- 
tural, and therefore later than the nomadic. 

{d) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five. 

(i) The decalogue. 

(a) It is said to have had its origin in different ways : 
e.g., as having been (i) spoken by God, (2) given through 
angels, (3) written by the finger of God. 

(d) It is given different names ; ^. ^., (i) the ten words, 
(2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove- 
nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi- 
mony. 

(e) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : 1-17, and 
that in Deut. 5 : 6-21 ; and although both are said to have 
been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e.g., 
(i) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the 
reason assigned for observance of the fourth command- 
ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the 
bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other ; (3) the two 
additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command- 
ment; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and 
the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment. 

(d) It has been suggested that originally all the com- 
mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth, 



Exod. 2o:x, 22; 
Exod. 24: 12; 
Deut. 5:4; 
Acts 7: 53; 
Gal. 3:19; 
Heb. 2:2. 
Exod. 34:28, 29; 
Deut. 4:13; 
Deut. 5: 2; 9:5; 
10:4. 



Exod. 20:8; 

c/. Deut. 5:12; 
Exod. 20:12; 

c/. Deut. 5:16; 
Exod. 20: 17; 

</. Deut. 5:21. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 2$ 

of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the 
second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time. 

(i) It is divided {i) into ten words, but the division is 
not clear, since the Lutheran and Romish churches com- 
bine the first and second as one and divide the tenth ; 
(2) into two tables, but, here again, Jewish and Christian 
scholars, ancient and modern, fail to agree, three methods 
being advocated, according as the two tables contained, 
the first, three commandments, and the second, seven ; 
the first, four, and the second, six; the first, five, and the 
second, five. 

(2) The small book of the covenant, iht laws of which Exod. 34:12-14; 

34:17134:^9,20; 
may thus be grouped : {a) five on the duty of worship- 34:21, 18, aa, 

ing only Jehovah ; (3) one on image-worship ; {c) five on 
the offering of firstlings; (d) five on feasts ; {e) four on 
sacrifices and offerings. These laws seem to have been 
written in groups of five or ten, groups {b) and {e) hav- 
ing lost part of their number. They are all directly 
concerned with worship. 

(3) The large book of the covenant, which contains : id) Exod. 20:23-26; 
^^' * -^ , ^ ' ^ ' 21:2-6; 21:7- 

nve enactments on worship;'' (b) five on risrhts of slaves ; u; 21: 12-16; 

-^ ) ^ ^ ' 21: 17; 21:18- 

(c) five on slave concubines; (d) five on acts of violence. 25; 21:26—22:1 

^ ^ ' V / 22:2-6; 22:7- 

Then follows one (a fragment) on the reviling of father and 17; 22 : 18-20; 

22:21-27; 
mother. After that (e) five on personal injuries ; (/) and 22:28-30; 

(g) ten on injuries in connection with property, slaves, and 23:4-5; 23:6-9; 
cattle ; (h) five on theft and damage to property ; (i) and 
(j) ten on breaches of trust. Then follow three frag- 
ments on sexual crimes, magic, sacrifice to other gods. 
After that {k) five on the dealings with the weak and 
poor ; (/) five on reverence and offerings. Then follow 
two on purity. After that {m) five on testimony. Then 
follow two on kindness. After that («) five on justice, 
and ip) and (/) ten on feasts and offerings. In all there 
are sixteen groups of five, and eight fragments of groups, 
each of which probably consisted of five. 

A study of the subjects given above, and a reading 
of the enactments, will show the early character of these 
laws as contrasted with those given in Deuteronomy and 
Leviticus. It is to be noted (i) that the greater part of 

* In this classification the laws relating to worship are italicized. 



23: 10-19. 



26 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

this code is concerned with subjects which are not today- 
thought of as religious, but that in early times there was 
no distinction between "religious" and ** secular" — 
everything was religious; (2) that all the enactments 
concerning religion, in the narrower sense of the word, 
have to do with its objective features — feasts, sacrifices, 
offerings, ritual, etc. — all of which is included in wor- 
ship. It is these enactments that lie back of the teach- 
ing of the prophets down to about 650 B. C. 

In the next study it will appear that great and fundamental changes 
are to occur after 650 B. C. in all the regulations which concern the 
subject of worship and its allied subjects. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 

821. The Middle Old Testament Period (see g 14 (2)) 2 Kings 22:8- 

23: 3. 
had for its most striking event the discovery and pub- 
lication of the book of the law, known in these 
later times as Deuteronomy. It is impossible here, as 
in the history of any period, to draw sharp lines of 
separation. 

(i) Just when this middle period began cannot 
be fixed definitely. But this much is clear, that the 
work of the prophets {cf. § 18) in the years preced- 
ins: 621 B. C. ia) pointed out the evils which had Amos 5:24; 9:7; 

\ / r Hos. 8 : 5, 6, 14 ; 

crept into the worship of the people; ij?) presented 

such conceptions of God's iustice, love, holiness, and isa. 1:12-17; 
^ J > > > 6:1-5; etc. 

unity as would furnish a basis for higher and more spir- 
itual forms of worship than those which were already 
in existence ; and this {c) prepared the way for some- 
thing which, up to this time, the people could not 
appreciate. 

(2) Just when this middle period ended is likewise 
indefinite, but it is evident that after and out of this 
period there came a still higher form of worship, des- 
tined in God's providence {a) to endure through a period 
of great political and religious upheaval, and (^) to 
serve as the basis for a worship still higher in its ideals 
and in its spiritual character. 

§ 22. Three Distinct Stages May be Traced in the his- 
tory of the middle or Deuteronomic period. These may 
be classified as : 

(i) The pre -exilic stage, which ended with the removal 3Kings25:8-<ji. 
of the people from their land and with the destruction 
of the temple around which the whole system of worship 
centered. 

(2) The exilic stage, during which the people were in 
Babylon, away from all the familiar scenes of worship 

27 



28 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

and under the influence of an entirely new religious 
environment. 
Ezra, chap, i ; (3) The post-exilic stage, beginning with the return 

7 : i-io. 

from exile, including the building of the second temple, 

and ending approximately with the visit of Ezra to 

Jerusalem. 

§ 23. The Deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiah's Day 

(701 B. C.) had exerted a marked influence on worship. 

To Hezekiah is ascribed an important work as reformer, 

2 Kings 18:4; in that he (i) removed the high places, (2) broke the pillars, 

(3) cut down the Asherim, (4) broke in pieces the brazen 

serpent that Moses had m.ade, which, in his day, was wor- 

Amos 7: 9; shiped as a representation of God in Jerusalem. In so far 

Hos. 10: 1, 2; 

isa. 30:22; 31:7. as these things were accomplished, Hezekiah was acting 

in accordance with the commands of the prophets (see 
§ 18). But it seems that the work was not as thorough- 
going as it might have been, since in Josiah's times, 

2 Kings 23: 13. seventy or eighty years later, the high places erected by 
Solomon near Jerusalem were still in existence. Heze- 
kiah's reformation, however transient, was closely con- 
nected with the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennach- 
erib and the Assyrian army in 701 B. C. This invasion 

2 Kings 18: 13; had two results : (i) The outlying villages with their high 
places were destroyed and dishonored, and the country 
people came to see that the worship as practiced in the 

2 Kings 19:20-37. high places was of no avail in times of great distress. (2) 
Jerusalem, the temple, and the God whose worship was 
conducted in the temple (a worship beyond question 
comparatively pure) were delivered, and thereby greatly 
honored, for the whole nation had therein a posi- 

Deut. 12:2-19. tive experience of Jehovah's power. This paved the 
way for the exaltation of the temple-worship and the 
destruction of the worship in the high places, changes 
which together form the great characteristic of the mid- 
dle period. 

See W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 353-64; 
CORNILL, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 67 f.; Driver, Isaiah, His Life 
and Titnes, pp. 66-83 ; the article " Hezekiah " in Hastings' Dic- 
tionary of the Bible, Vol. II, p. 377 ; and the corresponding article 
(§ i) in Encyclopcpdia Biblica, Vol. II. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 29 

§ 24. Manasseh's Reign Brought a Great Reaction. — 
This came about because (i) the prophetic party (that is, 
the party of reformers) pushed forward more rapidly 
than the people could follow, e. g., (a) in destroying the 
objects and places of worship held in veneration by the 
people for many centuries, and (3) in holding up con- 2 Kings 18:4; 
ceptions of God and of life which the people were still too 
ignorant and debased -to appreciate ; (2) the people were 
disappointed in the hope, raised by the prophets, that 
with Jerusalem's deliverance Assyria would perish, when, 
as a matter of fact, Assyria still remained powerful, sub- aChron. 33:". 
duing Egypt and taking tribute from Judah ; (3) the 
people believed that this failure of their desires and the c/. jer. 44 : 15-19. 
consequent adversity had their origin in the proposed 
reforms of the prophets, and that these very reforms 
(e. g., the breaking down of the high places) were dis- 
pleasing to Jehovah. 

The reaction exhibited itself in (1) the murder of the 2 Kings 21:16; 

^ ' Jer. 2 : 30. 

prophets and their partisans ; (2) setting up again the idols, 2 Kings 21 : 3-5. 

and the Asherim ; (3) giving permission to enchanters 2 Kings 21: 6. 

and augurs and witches and wizards to practice their 

arts; (4) encouraging human sacrifice; (5) introducing 2 Kings 21: 6; 

the worship of other gods even within the temple itself, Mic. 6:6, 7. 

e. g.y the host of heaven — the chariots of the sun being 2 Kings 21: 3,4; 

23 ' II, 12. 
placed within the temple. 

§ 25. The Discovery of the Deuteronomic Law followed 
a generation or so of prophetic silence. This silence 
was occasioned by persecution, and had for its result 
the production of a work which, in itself, summed up 
prophecy and furnished the text-book of worship for a 
long time to come. While the mouth of the prophet 
was closed, his pen worked. In this work the lessons Deut. 4:15-19; 
of Manasseh's reaction were taken into account ; for the Deut." 17 : 14-20'. 
new order of worship, while revolutionary in some 
aspects, was, after all, an evolution from that which pre- 
ceded it. The new cult went as far as possible in retain- Deut. 15:19; 
ing old usages and old ceremonies, thus avoiding the 
difficulties occurring in connection with the earlier 
attempts at reformation. Many other things were 
learned anew from the experience of the reaction, e. g.. 



30 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Deut. 12:2-4. the demoralizing influence of the high places, and the 
necessity of purging and purifying the ritual. These 
were incorporated in the written document. 

See QYiWi^Y., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 62-4 ; CORNILL, 
op. cit., pp. 80-82 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary 
on Deuteronomy, pp. xlix-lxii. 

No opportunity, however, presented itself under 
Manasseh or Amon for the promulgation of this book. 
It was put away in the temple. In Josiah's reign, (i) 
when the hearts of the people were being turned to 
Jehovah by the terror aroused in connection with the 

jer.i:x,2; Scythian invasion; (2) when Jeremiah and Zephaniah 

®^ '^'^' were preaching with all the vigor of the older prophets ; 

2 Kings 22: 1, 2. (3) when Josiah, a young man, was turning his face in the 

2 Kings 22:3-8. direction of the true God ; (4) when the temple was being 
cleansed and repaired, in order that Jehovah might be 
thereby honored — then this book, the book of Deuter- 
onomy, was discovered, brought to the king, read to him, 
and read again to the people. The immediate circum- 
stances of this discovery are described in some detail ; e.g. : 

2 Kings 22:8-10. (i) The book was found by Hilkiah, the high-priest, and 
given by him to Shaphan, the scribe, who read it, took it 

2 Kings 22:11-14. to King Josiah, and read it to him. (2) The king was 
greatly grieved as he listened and realized how far short 
of the demands of this book the religious life of Israel 
had fallen. He at once sent a delegation of leading men 
to Huldah, a prophetess, to inquire Jehovah's will con- 

2 Kings 22 : 15-20. cerning the book. (3) She declared that the judg- 
ments it contained would fall upon Israel because of 
their desertion of Jehovah and their worship of other 
gods, but that Josiah would reign in peace because of 

a Kings 23:1-3. his faithfulness to Jehovah. (4) Upon hearing this, 
Josiah called a great meeting of all the people, read the 
newly found book to them, and caused them to join him 
in a covenant with Jehovah to conform to Jehovah's 
requirements as laid down therein. Thereupon the work 
of reform was begun throughout the land. 

§ 26. The Results of the Finding of Deuteronomy are 
very fully given us in the sacred narrative. These results 
constituted what is called Josiah's reformation, and 
included : 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3 1 

(i) The destruction of the high places and altars 2 Kings 23 : 8, 12, 
throughout the land. 

(2) The breaking down of X\\t, pillars and Asherim. 2 Kings 23 : 6, 14. 

(3) The removal of the teraphim and other idols. 2 Kings 23:24. 

(4) The destruction of the horses and chariots of the 2 Kings 23:11. 
sun. 

(5) The deposition and destruction of idolatrous 2 Kings 23:5,8,9, 
priests and of the priests of the high places. 

(6) The abolition of human sacrifice. 2 Kings 23: 10. 

(7) The observance of the Feast of the Passover. 2 Kings 23:21-23. 

(8) The prohibition oi sorcerers and wizards. 2 Kings 23:24. 

(9) The purification of worship involved in doing 2Kings23:7. 
away with the Sodomites. 

Two things may be said : (a) There is nothing essen- 
tial commanded in Deuteronomy which Josiah did not 
try to do ; (d) every single act of the reformation will be 
found commanded in Deuteronomy. 

§ 27. The Teaching of Deuteronomy on the more 
important points of worship may be briefly summarized 
as follows : ' 

(i) Object of worship. — Jehovah only is to be wor- Deut. 6:4; 10:20; 
shiped ; all idols and other objects of worship must be 16:21 f.'; 7: 5, 25' 
destroyed. 

(2) Place of worship. — Worship is permitted only at Deut. 12:2-7. n, 

17 f., 26—28. 
one central sanctuary, viz., the temple at Jerusalem. All 

local shrines are to be destroyed. 

(3) Priests. — These now become a distinct class, the Deut. 10:8,9. 
tribe of Levi being set apart to perform the priestly 
function. There are, of course, more Levites than 

are needed for priests ; these are to be teachers and 

judges. The duties of the Levites at the local sanctua- Deut. i8:i-& 

ries being abolished, many of them are naturally without 

means of support, and special provision has to be made 

for them in the law. 

{^) Sacrifice. — The continuance of sacrifice is taken Deut. 12:13!; 
for granted, but every sacrifice is to be offered >at the 
central sanctuary. All firstlings are, as before, especially 
designated as sacrifices to Jehovah. 

^ For an examination of this book as a code of laws, see pp. ISS~^9' 



32 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Deut. 5 : 12-15. 
Deut 15 : 1-18. 



Jer. 34 : 1-20. 
Deut. 16 : 1-15. 



Deut. 14: 3-21. 



Deut. 23 : 21-23. 

Deut. 14 : 28 f . ; 

26:12. 
Deut. 18: 10-12; 

23: 17!; 14: 1. 



Deut. g : 20, 26-29. 



Deut. 6:4; 4 : 28 : 
10: 17. 



Deut. 4 : 32-36 ; 
cf. Exod. 19 : 6. 



Deut. 12 : 2-7. 



Deut. 10:8. 



(5) Days and seasons. — Set times of worship are 
appointed to be observed : {a) The sabbath is preserved 
unchanged, ij)) The sabbatical year becomes established, 
and is extended to the cancellation of all debts owed by 
Hebrews to their fellow-countrymen and to the release 
of all Hebrew slaves. There was an unsuccessful attempt 
to enforce this provision with reference to slaves in the 
reign of Zedekiah. (c) Three annual feasts are fixed, as 
before, in connection with the agricultural seasons ; but, 
like all other acts of worship, they are to be celebrated at 
Jerusalem. New elements appear in the fixing of the 
duration of the Feast of Tabernacles at seven days, and 
of Pentecost at one day, and in the connection of the 
Passover with the exodus from Egypt. No reference is 
made to feasts of the moon. 

(6) Other acts of worship. — {a) A list of clean and 
unclean animals is given ; this classification probably 
had a religious basis; if) faithfulness in the performance 
of vows is enjoined ; {c) 2i triennial tithe is imposed which is 
to be given to the Levite, the widow, and the poor; (^) 
perverted acts of worship, such as human sacrifice, sorcery, 
etc., are prohibited ; {e) prayers of Moses are recorded. 

See Cheyne, op.cit, pp. 64-7 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical 
Commentary on Deuteronomy, T^^.yi\x--x.xxxw\ article "Deuteronomy" 
(§§ 27-32) in EncyclopcEdia Biblica, Vol. I ; and corresponding article 
(§ iv) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I. 

§ 28. The Full Significance of the Deuteronomic Prin- 
ciples, the Spirit with which These are Presented, and the 
Great Changes "Wrought by Their Adoption are difficult to 
appreciate. Some of these points may be noted : 

(i) The fundamental idea is that there is but one 
god worthy to be called God ; other gods are wood 
and stone. 

(2) With such a God dealing directly with the nation, 
Israel's life must be high and holy; for otherwise it will 
be unworthy. 

(3) There shall be only one place of worship, and 
that the temple in Jerusalem; in this way the licentious 
nature-worship can be done away with. 

(4) The conduct of worship must be guarded, and 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 33 

consequently it is placed under the control of a special 
tribe, the Levites. 

(5) The method of presentation is a wonderful one, 

being twofold, prophetic and priestly; viz., (a) exhorta- Deut. 4:1-13; 
tions of the most ** sweetly impressive" character, full of 
spiritual strength; {b) laws, many of them dating from Deut. 5:6-21. 
the earliest times, others from a later period ; some of Deut., chaps, 
them apparently arbitrary in their tone, others full of 
the reasons which should lead to their observance. 

(6) The spirit throughout is the spirit of love, and is geut. 7: 7-10; 
akin to that exhibited in the book of Hosea. '* The 

primal love of Jehovah to Israel fills the foreground of 
each writer's discourse, and all human relationships within 
the Israelitish community are rooted in this." ^ But this Eeut.6:i7-i9; 

•^ Deut. 10 : 18. 

love is no sentimental love; Israel's God is a God of 
justice as well as of love. 

(7) The restriction of worship to one place is Deut. 14 : 22-27. 
" tantamount to a suppression of religion in the whole 

country outside of Jerusalem." ^ How can the country 
people now consult Jehovah? The neighboring altar Deut. 19: 1-13. 
to which the fugitive might flee and be safe is done away 
with, and distant cities of refuge are only a partial sub- 
stitute ; while the function of the altar as a place to 
which the people might come and receive judgment is 
given to the gates of the cities and to the temple at Jeru- Deut. 16: 18; 
salem. Israel in the country must now live without God, 
with whom before he had lived so closely. 

(8) The feasts are beginning to be denaturalized ; that 
is, they are losing their agricultural significance, and are 
to be more and more closely associated with historical 
events — the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the flight 
from Egypt; the Feast of Weeks, with the giving of the law 
on Sinai ; the Feast of Tabernacles, with the journey in 
the desert. Religion is a matter of fixed days and sea- 
sons, rather than an everyday affair. 

(9) The setting apart of priests, and the placing of 

See article " Feasts " (§§ 9, 10) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. 11 ; 
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 91 f.; COR- 
NiLL, op. cit., p. 86. 

»Cheyne» op. cit., -p. 66. 3Cornill, op. cit., p. 85. 



34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

all worship in their hands, thus compelling the people 

to make use of them, while beforetime the use of a priest 

was voluntary, draws the line sharply between laity and 

Deut. 18:3; 21:5; clergy. The priest changes his function; for he is now 

Deut. 17:9, 12; preeminently a sacrificer, while before he consulted the 



20:2-4; 24:8. 



oracle and announced the divine will. 



30:10. 



Deut. 14:24!.; (10) The significance of the sacrifice is greatly 

changed. Sacrifice being lawful only at the one central 
sanctuary, it was offered for the most part only in con- 
nection with the three great yearly festivals when all 
Israelites were required to be at Jerusalem. The popular, 
joyous aspect of it as a banquet and as an offering of 
joy and thanksgiving, made frequently and in connection 
with any suitable occasion, now begins to disappear, and 
a more and more solemn and expiatory character is given 
to all sacrifice, 

Deut. 4:40; 6:1- (11) What is it henceforth to be religious ? To do 

8':i?'6^Vif ""' the thing laid down in a book. The day that saw Deut- 
eronomy accepted, its ritual of worship adopted, and its 
teaching concerning priest and sacrifice recognized — that 
day saw the beginning of the death of prophecy. It was, 
of course, the prophets' own work ; but they had estab- 
lished the agency by which, later, they themselves would 
be strangled ; because from this time forward the voice 
of the prophet is unnecessary. 
See CoRNiLL, op. cit., p. 89. 

(12) The adoption of Deuteronomy signified the 
separation of church and state. This was necessary, for 
the state is soon to die — within thirty-five years. This 
separation made it possible for the church to live, after 
the death of the state. 

See CoRNiLL, op. cit., p. 88. 

(13) The act of Josiah and his people in accepting 
Deuteronomy was the first step toward the canonization 
of Holy Scripture — the first step in a long line of similar 
events which have given us the Bible with our modern 
conceptions of inspiration. 

(14) In a word, worship, whether viewed narrowly or 
broadly, is henceforth almost z. new thing. The Israelitish 
religion seems to have been revolutionized. Of course, 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 35 

a closer study shows that all this was evolution, not 
revolution ; the prophets had prepared the way; the 
prophets and priests worked together. A priest found 
the book and gave it to the king, and the priests 
received through this book privileges they had never 
before enjoyed. 

See BUDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 171-9. 

§ 29. A Second Reaction followed after thirteen years 
of successful work on the part of Jeremiah and Josiah. 

(i) Jeremiah at the beginning of the reformation had Jer. 11:1-6,18-23. 
preached the contents of this book throughout the vil- 
lages of Judah, sometimes incurring the opposition and 
persecution of his friends. 

(2) The times that followed for thirteen years were 
quiet and prosperous ; the king and the people lived 
before God and received his blessing. 

(3) Perhaps during this time the work of the sages c/. Prov., chaps, 
began to flourish. jer. 18:18. 

(4) Assyria was losing ground; Necho of Egypt 2 Kings 23: 29; 
(608 B. C.) began to encroach upon the Assyrian terri- 
tory. Josiah met him at the battle of Megiddo and was 

slain. The reformation failed. The people believed 

the king's death was a divine punishment for changing 

the forms of worship in their religion. The opposing 2 Kings 23 :36 f . ; 

party gained control, and then followed the series of 

events which resulted, in a few years, in the downfall of 

the kingdom. 

§ 30. The Significance of the Babylonian Exile in its 
Relationship to Worship cannot easily be overestimated. 
Its effect upon some of the principal ideas and institu- 
tions may be noted here : 

(i) Object of worship. — The removal to Babylonia 2 Kings 25 : 13-17 
involved the leaving behind of all idolatrous objects of 
worship, or their confiscation or destruction by the con- 
queror. The leaders of Israel's relio^ious life looked Ezek. 6:11-14; 
^ ° 8:3-18. 

upon idolatry as one of the chief causes of the exile. 

The removal from the land with which Jehovah had 
always been associated to a land which was the dominion 
of another erod also involved either an acknowled2:ment isa. 40 ; 12-31 ; 

,, r y ■ r ■ i ,, 44 : 9-20 J 45 :5-7 ; 

01 the power or this foreign god, or else the maintenance 46:5-7. 



36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

of a belief in Jehovah's supremacy and universality. That 
this higher conception of Jehovah prevailed is clear from 
the fact that we hear nothing of idolatry after the return 
from the exile, and especially from the teachings of Isa., 
chaps. 40-66. 

(2) Place of worship. — The temple being destroyed, 
and all the familiar scenes of worship being left behind, 
together with all material and external reminders of 

Isa. 45: 18-22; Jehovah's presence, the warshipers were necessarily led 

Isa. 51: 12, 13. to a more spiritual conception of God. Moreover, 
absence from the temple developed an ability to do with- 
out the temple services which was in part responsible for 
the origin of synagogues. 

Ezek., chaps. 40- (3) The occupation of the priests was gone, in so far 
as it was dependent upon the temple. The book of 
Ezekiel furnishes an illustration of one phase of priestly 

Isa. 61:6. activity during these days. The thought of Israel as a 

nation of priests appears. 

Isa. 43:22-24; (4) Sacrifice could no longer be offered, but it did not 

lose any of its importance in the thought of the people. 

Isa. 56:2, 4, 6; (5) Times and seasons. — {a) The sabbath, being an 

institution which was independent of the temple, could still 
be kept, and it received much emphasis during and after 
this period. Sabbaths were also observed by the Baby- 
lonians. (<5) Feasts, which had always been occasions of 
joy, could no longer be observed legally, and emphasis 

Isa. 58:3-5. was laid on {c) fasts, which were of an exactly opposite 

character and were not dependent upon the temple. 

(6) Other acts of worship. — («:) In the absence of all 
the regular public means of worship, those who wor- 
shiped *'in spirit and in truth" naturally had frequent 

Isa. 63: 15—64: 12; recourse to prayer. The future temple is thought of as 

Isa. 52:1,11. a house of prayer, {b) The recognition of the captivity 

as a punishment for sin led to an exalted conception of 
Jehovah's holiness and to the laying of great emphasis 

Isa. 65:1-7, 11; upon ceremonial cleanness, {c) It is probable, however, 
that many became apostates from the Jehovah-worship 
and took up the worship of their conquerors. 

Cf. Ezek. 10: 9-22. (7) The influence of the Babylonian worship on Israel's 

ritual is evident in succeeding ritualistic legislation, as 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 37 

also in some of Ezekiel's imagery. Jehovah through the 
exile again brought Israel into contact with a great 
religion, as he had already done in the case of Baalism. 
Just as Israel had learned some truths through Baalism, 
and to some extent had enriched the cultus of Jehovah 
thereby, so was she to do through the agency of Baby- 
lon's worship. 

§31. The Priest-Prophet of the Captivity, Ezekiel, 
occupied an important place in the further development 
of the ritual of worship. His place may only be 
touched upon here. With prophetic idealism, legalist 
though he was, his vision pictured a future temple, a 
future service, and a future priesthood, as follows : 

(a) The temple. — While the temple of Solomon had 
been virtually a part of the royal palace, the new temple 
is to be wholly separate from the royal dwellings and 
from all other ordinary habitations ; for it is the earthly 
habitation of the most holy God, who had abandoned Bzek.45;i-€. 
the former city and temple because of their profanation by 
sin and uncleanness. To prevent any such profanation 
of Jehovah in future 

the sacred "oblation," the domain of the priests, Levites, Ezek. 48 : 7-33. 
prince, and city, is placed in the center of the restored tribes, 
Judah on one side of it and Benjamin on the other. In the 
midst of this oblation is the portion of the priests, that of the 
Levites lying on one side, and that of the city on the other. 
In the middle of the priests' portion stands the temple. This 
is a great complex of buildings, around which on all sides lies 
a free space or suburbs. Then comes a great wall surround- 
ing the whole buildings, forming a square of five hundred 
cubits. Within this wall is an outer court, and within this 

an inner court In this inner court stands the altar, 

and to the back of it the temple house. The house has also 
a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity 
inwards — an outer apartment or porch, an inner or holy 
place, and an innermost, where the presence of Jehovah 
abides.'* 

(3) The priests. — The sons of Zadok only are to be Ezek. 44:4-16. 
priests ; all other Levites are to be subordinate ministers, 
performing the more menial tasks of the sanctuary. 

4 Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel (Cambridge Bible), p. 290. 



38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Foreigners are not to be permitted to enter the temple, 
as heretofore, to perform any tasks. The distinction 
between clergy and laity is clearly marked ; none of the 
latter — not even the prince — may enter the inner court 
Ezek. 44:17-28. of the temple. The sanctity of the priests as the ones 
ministering in the presence of Jehovah is strongly empha- 
sized and guarded in many ways, such as the requirement 
that they wear special garments while discharging their 
Ezek. 44:29.30. sacred functions. They live upon their share of the sac- 
rifices of the people. 

(c) Sacrifice occupies an important place in the ritual. 

Ezek. 43:18-26; The various kinds mentioned are : (i) \ki^ sin-offerings 

Ezek. 43:27; ' which is much emphasized; (2) burnt-offerings, which 

Ezek. 42: 13. are numerous; (3) the trespass -offering , which was a 

Ezek. 46:13-15. variety of the sin-offering; (4) the meal-offering; (5) the 

Ezek. 46 : 19-24. peace-offeriug ; (6) the continual burnt-offering mdi<lQ e^Qvy 

morning. Special places are provided for the cooking 

of the offerings that are to be eaten by priests and people. 

Ezek. 44:24. {d) Times and seasons. — The old times are all to be 

Ezek. 45:17— observed, viz., the sabbath, the new moons, and the three 

* '^^' feasts, the Passover receiving special notice. 

§32. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of 
These Times appears most strongly. This means that the 
priest- work was gaining ground, while the prophetic work 
was losing ground. Butitwill benoted that(^)anewsitua- 
tion was coming in which the priest-work would be more 
greatly needed ; and {b) the priest-work had taken into 
itself all that had been contributed by the prophets. It 
is true, therefore, that not the priest-work pure and 
simple, but the priest-work as strengthened by, and as 
containing, the truth proclaimed through prophets, was 
the power that now held the forefront. 
This priestly element is seen — 
jer. 1:1. (i) In the priestly birth and character of the prophet 

Jeremiah, whose home was at Anathoth, one of the 
headquarters of the priests. 
Deut., chaps. 12- (2) In the priestly character of a large portion of the 

book of Deuteronomy. 
Deut. 18:5; (3) In the position now occupied by the priests as 

c/.judg. 17:7-13. compared with their former position. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 39 

(4) In the priestly character and service of Ezekiel. Ezek. i : 3 ; chaps 
§33. The Return of the People from the Babylo- Ezra 2:641 
nian Exile introduced an entirely new situation. It was 
one, however, in which for eighty years (538-458 B. C.) 
the book of Deuteronomy and its regulations were 
supreme. It was a time of discouragement; the high 
hopes of the returning exiles were dashed to the ground 
in the presence of desolated homes, wasted lands, fail- 
ure of crops, loss of political independence, and the c/. Hag. 2 : 15-19. 
destruction of Jerusalem. The struggle against these 
adverse conditions seems to have absorbed most of their 
energies during the first years after the return, the re- 
quirements of worship being largely neglected. We 
may note the attitude toward some of the principal 
institutions. 

(a) The temple. — Partly because of opposition on the Ezra 5: 2; 
part of certain enemies, but chiefly on account of dis- Ezra 6 -is.' 
couragement and indifference, the foundation of the 
temple was not laid until December, 520 B. C, eighteen- 
years after the return, and the work was not finished 
until 516 B. C. Because of the poverty of the people. Hag. 2:3; 

Ezra 3 : 12. 

this new temple fell far short of the splendor of the old. 

The religious leaders were convinced that prosperity and Ezra 5: 1,2. 

glory could come to Israel only if the temple were first 

restored. This shows how large a place it had come to Hag. 1:9, 10. 

occupy in religious thought and practice. 

(^) The priest -wdiS gaining more and more importance 
in the life and worship of the people. Of the returning Ezra 2: 36-39. 
exiles a large proportion consisted of priests and other 
temple servants. There seems to have been develop- 
ing the distinction between priests and Levites which Ezra 6: 18,20. 
was to become fixed later. That the distinction was 
not yet clearly made is evident from the fact that the Ezra 8 120; 10:5; 

Mai. 3 : 3. 

two titles appear to be synonymous in some passages, 
just as they are in Deuteronomy. One priest had 
already achieved prominence as the leader of his breth- zech. 3:1-9; 

ren, and he appeared side by side with the prince in all Hag. 1:1,12; 

2:2, 4. 
important concerns, and was superior to him in reli- 
gious affairs. A high standard was set up for the priests Mai. 2:5-9; 3:3. 
by Malachi, and their corruption was severely denounced. 



40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Mai. 3: 8, 9. Tithes for the support of the priests were still in force, 

but were reluctantly paid. 

Ezra 3: 2, 3. (c) Sacrifice ^2js> 2X once renewed at Jerusalem upon 

the return from exile, if, indeed, it had ever wholly ceased. 
One of the earliest acts was the erection of an altar of 
burnt-offering upon the site of the former temple, that 
the regular sacrifices might be offered to Jehovah. These 
sacrifices were probably those provided for in Deuter- 

Mai. 1:7,8, 12-14 ; onomy {cf. § 2 7 (4)) and earlier laws. Malachi denounces 
those who bring maimed, imperfect, and polluted offer- 
ings, and insists upon the best of everything as an offer- 
ing to Jehovah. 

(^) Times and seasons. — These probably continued 
the same as they had been under the Deuteronomic law. 

Ezra 3: 4. 5; Specific mention is made, in the literature that comes 

Zech?7?i-7; from these days, only of the Feast of the New Moon, the 

ec . .1,19. Feast of Tabernacles, the Passover, and of four fasts 
which had been observed every year since the beginning 
of the exile. 

Ezras: 10,11. W Other acts of worship. — (i) Music and singing are 

mentioned in connection with the laying of the founda- 

Mai. 1:14. tion stone of the temple. (2) Vows were still made. 

Neh. 1:4-11; 2:4; (3) Sorcery was not even yet wholly uprooted. (4) That 
^^^' the habit of prayer was not discontinued is clear from 

Nehemiah's statements concerning himself at a little later 
time. 

§ 34. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of 
these later years is seen in — 

Hag. 1:8-10; {a) The emphasis laid upon the necessity of build- 

6:1*2-151'^*^' ing the temple as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of 
Jehovah's favor. This is the main theme of Haggai's 
prophecy. 

zech. 3:1-10; (3) The prominence given to priestly interests in the 

7:1-7;' 8: 18,' 19. utterances of Zechariah, who speaks of the temple, the 
high-priest, fasts, feasts, etc. 

Biai. 1:6-14; W '^^^ large place given to matters pertaining to 

Mai,^3?i-4; worship in the book of Malachi, which probably comes 

MaM:4! from the very end of this period. The main interest of 

the author seems to be centered in an effort to reform 
the ritual and those who have charge of it. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4 1 

§ 35. The Songs and H3mins of the Middle Period are 
very numerous. Their spirit may be gathered from the 
following examples : 

( i) Songs celebrating the deliverance of Jerusalem, pss. 46; 48. 
as in the days of Hezekiah. 

(2) Songs describing the wickedness of the times, Pss. 36 ; 54 ; 64. 
as in the days of Manasseh. 

(3) Songs depicting the destruction of Jerusalem Pss. 80; 31. 
and the going into captivity. 

(4) Songs expressing the sense of loneliness and Pss. 137; 22; 69; 
wretchedness experienced during the exile. 

(5) Songs celebrating the joy and gladness of the Pss.i26;ii5. 
return from exile. 

(6) Songs of the second temple, written particularly Pss. 106; 107. 
for congregational worship. 

It is to be noted concerning the songs thus classi- 
fied— 

(a) That those of earlier date were considerably 
modified in the later days when the use of songs in 
congregational worship was more thoroughly established. 

(d) That it is exceedingly difficult to fix exactly the 
date of many psalms because of the lack of historical 
indications; /. e., references to historical events. 

(r) That many psalms which seem to express indi- 
vidual experiences and aspirations are really congrega- 
tional in their character; /'. e., they were written to express 
the feelings of a community. 

(d) That a fuller treatment of this part of the ele- 
ment of worship will be presented later (see chap, xviii). 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD. 

§ 36. The Later Old Testament Period in the history of worship is 
the story oi Judaism, that is, the Jewish religion, which was the daugh- 
ter of the Hebrew religion. The period, rightly considered, (i) begins 
with the Babylonian exile (§ 30), for at that time were set in motion 
the great ideas, and the modifications of old ideas, which finally made 
up Judaism ; but (2) the time in which the distinct establishment and 
substantial development of Judaism took place falls within the two 
centuries of Persian supremacy (538-332 B. C.) ; while (3) the cen- 
tury and a half from 332 B. C. to 165 B. C, the period of Greek 
influence, had for its great achievement the final testing and rounding- 
out of Judaism. 

See Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and 
Greek Periods, pp. v-vii ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 
500 f . 

§37. Some of the Most Striking Characteristics of this 
period are these : 

(i) It is the last division of the Old Testament 
period. Is it a climax or an anti-climax ? Is it a 
step higher in the development of the true religious 
conception, or is it a step lower than has hitherto been 
taken ? 
c/. Ezra 1:5. (2) It is prevailingly /r/Vj-Z/v in its character, for {a) 

a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; (^) the prophet's 
voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ; 
Zech. 3:1-7; while {c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of 

^■"* supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli- 

est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as 
king. 

(3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which 

presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the 

history of a church, not that of a state. 

Xfeh., chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find 

that the great event which characterized this period, the 

42 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43 

event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial 
emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical law by 
Ezra. With this we may compare the giving of the 
Deuteronomic law, in its relationship to the middle 
period (§28). 

§ 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of 
the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among 
other, elements which may be taken as directly grow- 
ing out of the exile and leading up to this later 
period : 

(i) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :29-34; 
sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut.24:i6. 
personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation 
to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible 
for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance 
with God depends upon himself alone. 

(2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new community, a new Ezek.. chaps. 40- 
city in which no government will be needed, for there ^ ' 

will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge. 
He will bestow upon the people all that they need. 
The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel- 
fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16; 
Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the ^^E^k.^las-lo. 
slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage 
in worship, continual worship. The only object of care 
will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will 
be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom 
of God on earth. 

(3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18; 
Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was ^^ -8:20-23. 
not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any 
particular form of government. 

(4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. 1:1-6; 
the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their c/jJei2:28.29. 
utterance were unheeded or rejected. 

(5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. 8:1; 
for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible c/ps! 74': 8. 
under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip- 
ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna- 
gogues. 



44 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Exod. 20:23— (6) With the book of the Covenant (§20), and the book 

of Deuteronomy (§ 25) which had become the adopted 
code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo- 
Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all 
tf/. isa. 51 : 17-20. in existence, and all rendered impossible of observance by 
the circumstances of the people, there is seen to be a 
great indefiniteness and uncertainty in the situation, 
which, while confusing, signified most clearly that the 
"Law" was not yet finished, and prepared the minds of 
the people for the more definite and final formulation 
still to be made, 
c/. Ezra 1:2-4; (?) '^^^ broad and generous policy of Cyrus and his 

Ezra 7: 11-26; successors on the Persian throne, a policy of state and 
Weh. 2:1-9. religion very different from that of preceding history, as 

well as from that of still later times, made possible in 
the way of progress and growth what otherwise would 
have been impossible. 
Jer. a4:x-xo. (8) The higher character of the Babylonian Jews, 

and the special circumstances of their environment, as 
distinguished from that of the Jews who remained in 
Judah, forms an important factor in the movement 
toward national exclusiveness which is henceforth to be 
so prominent. 
Hag. 2:6-9; (9) The expectations, publicly announced, of Haggai 

and Zechariah that in the political upheavals of the day 
(/. e., the revolts of the Babylonians in 519 and 515 B. C. 
against the Persian rule) deliverance and glory would 
come to Israel ; the embassy of four Jews from Babylon, 
bringing gifts of silver and gold which are made into a 
Zech. 6:9-12. crown for Zerubbabel (not Joshua); and the fact that 
Zech. 3:8. Zerubbabel had been given the name Branch or Sprout — 

all this points to the suggestion that there were many who 
still expected a descendant of David to sit upon Israel's 
throne ; but the hope was impossible of realization because 
{a) the whole trend of events was toward the priestly rule, 
and ij?) perhaps the Persian authorities may have interfered 
to prevent an act which would certainly have led to treason, 
^!Neh.!cLp. 6. just as they did in the case of the building of the walls. 
See Cheyne,/^wz>>^ Religious Life after the Exile, p. 15 ; Kent, 
op. cit., DD. 147 f. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 45 

(10) The residence in Babylon brought the Jews into 

close touch with an elaborate system of sacrifice, the 

most important characteristic of which was the propitia- ^ 

tory idea. This is significant in view of the fact that 

henceforward the greatest possible emphasis will be 

placed upon sacrifice as an atonement, and upon prayer Lev., chap. i6; 
r r • Neh. 1 : 4-11. 

for forgiveness. 

See Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitical 
Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature,, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81; 
Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 668. 

(11) Because in Babylon there was no chance to offer isa. 58:3^.; 
^ ' •' Ezra 8:21; 

sacrifice, such a thinsf bein? utterly inconceivable, /^jA;/f Neh. 1:4; 
• • ..1. J . , Joeli:x4; 

came into great prominence, since *'by denying them- zech. 7:3-5. 

selves their ordinary food they gave expression to the 

intensity of their feelings, and at the same time laid 

before Jehovah a gift which could be presented at any 

time and at any place." 

See Kent, op. cit., p. 43 ; Benzinger, article "Fasting," § 6, in 
Encyclopcedia Biblica; Stanton, article "Fasting," §§ i<5 and 3, in 
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-1 1. 

(12) It was, likewise, because in Babylon the great Ezek. 20: 12-84. 
feast days could not be properly or regularly observed, 

that greater and greater attention was given to the 
observance of the sabbath, for this could be done any- 
where. The nature of the observance was probably 
much influenced by the customs in vogue in Babylon. 

(13) The removal to another land, and residence in 
that land, took away the narrow conception of a national 
god which had always existed among the masses; and 
now the time has come when first the people as such 

will accept the great and fundamental doctrine of one isa. 44:6. 
god, i. e., monotheism. But Jehovah, in becoming the isa. 40:28. 
creator of the world, and the ruler of the universe, will 
not seem to be in as close touch as formerly with his 
people. He will be holy, in the sense of being sepa- 
rated. He will be higher and more majestic; less fami- isa. 40:12-17. 
liar and more dignified, because greater. 

See MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (= Hibbert 
Lectures, 1892), pp. 228, 268 f.; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. I, pp. 175 f.; Davidson, article " God," §IV, (4), in Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible. 



40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(14) According to the manner in which the individual 
Israelites meet these new and strange conditions they 

Neh. 13 : 15-28. .will divide themselves into two classes: (^) those who 
break away from their old religion because of inability to 
adopt a larger faith and a broader conception of God, or 
because of personal advantage gained by giving up the 

Mai. 3 : 16-18. old; and {d) those who, in spite of calamity and mis- 

apprehension, maintain themselves steadfast and true. 
This means a purging of the people, the growing 
stronger of those who are strong, and the weeding out of 
those who are weak. 

See Kent, op. ciL, pp. 221 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 291 ff. 

Hag. 2:3; (15) When it was realized quite clearly that the 

Ezra 3:12, 13. . , , 1 r 1^11 -1 1 

promises of the prophets were not to be fulfilled at the 

time of the return from exile, there was disappointment 
Mai. 2:17. 3,nd despair on every side. Some became indifferent to 

isa. 59:9-15. God, for they put on him the blame for their disappoint- 

ment. Others, the more devout, took the blame upon 
themselves. With full faith in God's ability to do the 
things which he had promised, they reasoned in their 
hearts that this glorious future must have failed of reali- 
zation because of Israel's sin ; yes, because of their own 
unworthiness this glory was being postponed. They 
Cf. the prophet reasoned further : We, who have sinned and have thus 
S°42?i8-25.^^ made it impossible for the great day of deliverance to be 
ushered in — we must change our ways ; we must become 
Cf. Ps. 15. more holy ; we must increase our piety ; our lives must 

be of such purity that God will be compelled to keep his 
promises. It was this situation and this interpretation 
of it that prepared the way for "the legalism and the 
salvation by works of the later Judaism." 
See CoRNiLL, Prophets of Israel, pp. 155-9= 

§ 39. A Great Reaction Came after the Building of the 
Temple in 516 B.C., which lasted nearly three-quarters of 
a century. Concerning this it will be noted — 
Neh. 5:1-12; (i) That, in all probability, only a few of the Baby- 

Mai! 2: 10. Ionian Jews had yet returned;^ the weak, narrow, and 

* The question of dates, always a more or less difBcult one, is in this case especially- 
difficult. Cf. Kent, op. cit., pp. 196 £f.; H. E. Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge 
Bible), pp. xxxviii-xlv; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 36-81 ; C. C. Torrey, The Composition 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4^ 

selfish elements were in control ; the rulers were greedy 
of gain, oppressing the poor. 

(2) There was in the community a strong tendency 
toward skepticism. The so-called "scorners" were in 
the majority, and included in their number not only rulers 
but priests, and these openly expressed doubts as to all 
the religious practices and opinions of the times, e. g., 

(a) weariness of the routine of sacrifice; (<5) what real Mai. 1. 13. 
benefit comes from serving God? (c) why not just as Mai. 3:14,15. 
well worship the heathen gods ? (d) what difference does Mai. 2:17. 
it make whether a man does right or wrong ? 

(3) Under these circumstances the condition of wor- 
ship was greatly degraded. This was seen in — 

(a) The complaint of the priests as to the weariness Mai. 1:13. 
of their occupation. 

(d) ThQ low character of the high-priests, who were Neh. 13 : 4-9, 28. 
among the most guilty. 

{c) The readiness of the people to cheat Jehovah in Mai. 1:6-14. 
their sacrifices. 

(d) The attitude of the priests in general toward the Mai. 1:8; 2:8,9. 
entire service, including the sacrifice, so that the whole 
ceremonial came into contempt. 

(e) The failure of the people to pay their tithes, Mai. 3:8-12. 
so that the support of the entire system was about 

to fail. 

(/) The marriage of the priests into families of outside Neh. 13:23-28; 

, , , - Mai. 2 : 10-16. 

nations who served other gods. 

(4) But there still remained the company of "faithful Mai. 3:16-18; 

Pss 6q ■ 32-36 ■ 

ones," who feared Jehovah, and were called "the just," 101:6; 113:7. 
"the poor and needy" {c/. above, §38, (14), (15))- 

§ 40. Nehemiah's Coming (44 B. C.) Was a Great Event 
in the history of Judaism. 

(i) His work as a reformer and upbuilder of Jerusa- Neh.i:i-7:5; 
lem included — 

(a) The rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem as a pro- weh. 2:12— 6:15. 
tection against attack, and as a means of separating the 
Jews from their heathen neighbors. 

and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65; W. H. KosTERS AND T. K. 
Cheyne, article "Ezra" in Encyclopcedia Biblica; L. W. Batten, article "Nehe- 
miah" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. 



48 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Neh.. chap. ii. {b) The repopulating of Jerusalem by bringing in 

Jews from the surrounding country to dwell there. 
Neh i^- 1-?^' (^) '^^^ prohibition of marriages with heathen peoples 

and the driving out of all foreigners from the Jewish 

community. 
Neh., chap. 5. (^) The restoration to its original owners of all 

property that had been acquired by mortgages and usury, 

and the remission of all interest. 
Neh. 13:15-22. (^) The institution of a stricter observance of the 

sabbath, which had heretofore been freely violated. 

Neh. 13:10-13; (2) But in addition to all this he turned his attention 

Neh. 1:0:32-39. ^ f 

to the temple and its service. Finding that this was 
being neglected because the Levites were under the 
necessity of working in the fields for their support, he 
took steps to secure the regular payment of the tithes, 
and appointed faithful officials to distribute them to the 
Levites. He also made regulations for the proper 
observance of sacrifices, offerings, and feasts. 

§41. The "Work of Ezra, in all probability, followed 
that of Nehemiah, the latter having by his masterful skill 
prepared the way {cf. §40). The steps in his eventful 
career may be summarily classified as follows : 

Ezra 7: 1-9; (i) Th.Q journey took place in the seventh year of 

Artaxerxes, occupied a period of four months, and was 
made without military escort, since Ezra refused to 
manifest distrust in Jehovah's protection by asking the 
aid of Artaxerxes. 

Ezra 7: 15-23; (2) The gifts said to have been offered by Artaxerxes 

and his princes for the temple at Jerusalem and its service, 
together with the requisition made by the king upon the 
governors of the western provinces and the free-will offer- 
ings of the Babylonian Jews themselves, were of great 
value, and were faithfully guarded and handed over to 
the temple officials. 

Bzra7:x4-27. (3) The immediate purpose was to establish more 

securely and develop more elaborately the facilities for 
worship in the temple. Matters relating to the service 
and to the temple seem to have occupied the entire 
time and attention of the reformers for a couple of 
months after their arrival. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 49 

§42. The Formal Adoption of the Law took place at Neh., chaps, 
a public assembly of all the people. The method of 
procedure was in general the same as that used when the 
Deuteronomic law was publicly adopted by the nation 
(see § 25). The law was first read aloud in the hearing of 
the people. This produced a sense of sin and short- 
coming on the part of all, and was followed by public con- 
fession. After this a solemn covenant was entered into 
by all the people to observe the requirements of the new 
law, and this covenant was signed by the representatives 
of the people, viz., the princes, priests, and Levites. 

§ 43. The Law as Thus Proclaimed and Accepted — 

(i) Is described in Nehemiah as — 

(a) Prohibiting marriages with the surrounding Neh. 10:30. 
heathen. 

(d) Providing for a strict observance of the sabbaths Neh. 10:31. 
and holy days. 

(f ) Enforcing the observance of the sabbatical year, Neh. 10: 31. 
with the accompanying remission of all debts. 

{d) Imposing an annual tax of one-third of a shekel Neh. 10:32, 33. 
per capita for the support of the services of the temple, 
including the offerings. 

{e) Arranging for the wood to be furnished for the Neh. 10:34. 
burnt-offerings at stated intervals. 

(/) Enjoining the bringing of all first-fruits and first- Neh. 10: 35-37. 
lings to the priests at the temple. 

(^) Requiring that the people give tithes to the Neh. 10:38. 
Levites in the various cities, and that the Levites bring a 
tithe of these tithes to the temple at Jerusalem. 

{h) Calling for a hearty support of the temple and Neh. 10:39- 
constant faithfulness to it. 

(2) Contains ree^ulations unknown to Deuteronomy, Neh. 10: 31^/ 

^ ' ° cf. Deut. , chap. 

e. g.j the requirement that the land lie fallow every sab- 15; 

batical year ; the tax of one-third of a shekel for the tem- cf. Deut. 14: 

pie services ; the arrangement for the provision of 

fire-wood ; and the law concerning tithes, which departs 

widely from the Deuteronomic law. 

(3) Was substantially the body of regulations found 
in Exod., chaps. 25-31 ; 34 : 29 — 40 : 38 ; Leviticus, and 
Numbers ; in other words, the so-called Levitical code. 



22-2g ; 26 : 12-15. 



50 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See Kent, op. cit., p. 212; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 72 f.; Monte- 

FIORE, O/. cit, pp. 315 ff.; J. ESTLIN CARPENTER AND G. HaRFORD 

Battersby, The Bexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 137-41 ; Wellhausen, 
op. cit., pp. 404-10. 

§44. The Significance of This Important Event lies in 

the following points : 

c/.weh. 10:30,31 (i) The immediate connection of these new reefula- 

with 13 : 15-24 ; ^ ■^ ^ 

Ezra 9: 1. tions with the times. They grew out of the effort to 

improve the existing moral and religious condition of 

the people, and they contain the principles that formed 

the basis of the work of reform. 

(2) The fact that, although some additions remained 
still to be made to this code, it was substantially complete. 

(3) The adoption and incorporation into this code 
of the important teachings of the prophets. It presented 
in the concrete and tangible form of specific precepts 
the great general truths that the prophets had long 
endeavored to inculcate. It presented truth and duty 
objectively, and thus met with a greater immediate suc- 
cess than the prophets' work had ever achieved. 

c/.,^.^., Lev. 16: 1 (4) The overwhelming preponderance of material in 

24^9; '2" II— the code relating to service or worship. 

Lev. 14:10-32; (5) ^^^ place occupied in it by sacrifice, and the 

ESd.^29^:U-42. emphasis (see §38, (10)) placed upon the idea of pro- 
pitiation and forgiveness. 

Neh. 10:37, 38. (6) The great advance made by the priests and Levites ; 

their support is no longer a matter of fitful charity, as it 
was under the Deuteronomic law, but is made a standing 
obligation upon the people, over the discharge of which 
the priests and Levites themselves are given control. 

§45. Another Important Headquarters for Worship, the 
Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim, grew out of this 

2 Kings 17:6, 24- priestly reformation. The Samaritans were a mixed race, 
whose ancestors were the poorer Israelites left behind 
after the deportation of the more influential classes to 
Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria, and the Baby- 
lonian colonists who were brought to Israel in place of 
the deported captives. Their religion was thus naturally 
a corrupt mixture of Israelitish and Babylonian ideas and 
practices. They seem to have been influenced by Josiah's 
reformation, at least to the extent of regarding Jerusalem 



41 ;r/. 25: II, 12. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 5 1 

as the only lawful place of worship. Hence, when the Ezra, chap. 4. 
effort to rebuild the temple was begun, the Samaritans 
sought to have a part in the work ; but, being denied this 
privilege by the stricter Jews, they seem to have used 
their influence to obstruct the work. Nehemiah's atti- Weh. 218-20. 
tude toward them was one of uncompromising opposition. 
They, for their part, opposed and hindered him greatly Neh. 4 ; 1-23 ; 6 i- 
in his work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. The Neh. 13:28. 
climax of Nehemiah's hostility to them was reached when 
he expelled the grandson of the high-priest from Jerusa- 
lem because he had married the daughter of Sanballat, 
one of the Samaritan princes. The new law, adopted 
when feeling was at such a pitch, of course gave the 
Samaritans no part in the worship at Jerusalem. Conse- 
quently they withdrew and built a temple for themselves 
on Mount Gerizim. In all probability many Jews who 
had contracted heathen marriages went over to the 
Samaritan community, to which they were so closely 
bound by family ties, and thus the community of the 
faithful was freed from many troublesome elements. 

See MoNTEFiORE, op. cit., pp. 351 f.; Cheyne, op. cit, pp. 25-35 *. 
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 498; GuTHE, article "Israel," §65, in 
Encyclopedia Biblica. 

§46. The Last Century of Persian Rule (425-332) 
witnessed — 

(i) The return of many Jews from the lands in which 
they had been scattered ; for this return, like the first 
entrance into Canaan, was very gradual. 

(2) The growing influence of those who thus returned 
as over against that of those who had remained. 

(3) Great opportunity at first for free growth and expan- 
sion because of the weakness of the government of Persia. 

(4) Serious calamity, later, because of the contest 
between Egypt and Persia, a contest in which the Jews 
were compelled to take part, and in which they suffered 

as perhaps never before in their history. From psalms Pss.74; 79. 
of this period we learn that the enemy entered Jerusalem 
and the temple itself, in which they set up their 
heathen standards and committed ruthless acts of van- 
dalism, even setting the temple on fire. Not satisfied 



52 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Ezod. 28 : 1-39 ; 
Lev. 16 : 1-3, 17. 



Numb. 18 : 1-7. 



with this, they burned all the synagogues of the land 
and slaughtered the people mercilessly, so that blood 
ran like water in the streets of Jerusalem. 

See EwALD, History of Israel, Vol. V, pp. 165-206; Cheyne, 
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, pp. 357-63 ; W. Emory Barnes, 
article "History of Israel," §10, in Hastings' Dictionary of the 
Bible; Guthe, article "Israel," §66, in Encyclopoedia Biblica; 
Kent, op. cit., pp. 224-8. 

§ 47. The Religio-Political Organization of Judaism, 

which had thus become crystallized, considered as to its 
outer form, was b. hierarchy, a government by priests ; for — 
(i) The chief ruler was the high-priest, who had 
despotic authority over the people, was robed in the 
royal purple, and alone represented the people before 
Jehovah in the holy of holies. 

(2) The ruling aristocracy was made up of priests, 
many of them related to the high-priest. 

(3) The servants of the priests and the sanctuary 
were the Levites. 

(4) The religious and civil functions are performed 
by one class, the priests. There is now no nation ; it is a 
church. 

(5) The scribes come forward in response to the 
need of the times. Since the regulations concerning 
life and worship were now fixed and written down, there 
arose a demand for copies of the written law for the use 
of synagogues and individuals. The scribes who pre- 
pared these copies, being naturally better educated than 
the great majority of the people and spending most of 
their time in the study of the law, soon came to be looked 
to as peculiarly well-fitted to interpret the law to those 
less conversant with it.* 

See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 392-6. 

§ 48. The Place and Acts of Worship are Adjusted to 
the New Situation. 

(i) The temple more and more came to be the center 
of the whole religious system. The thought of it as the 
place where Jehovah especially manifested his presence 
gave it a peculiar sanctity, so that none but the holy 

= The scope of the activity of the scribes is well set forth in a saying ascribed to 
Simon the Just (300-290 B. C.) : "Our fathers have taught us three things, to be cau- 
tious in judging, to train many scholars, and to set a fence about the Law." 



Ezra 7:6, 10-12 

21; 
Eccles. 12:11. 



Pss. 76:1,2 
79:1. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 53 

people might enter its precincts. The worst crime of 
which an enemy could be capable was desecration of the 
temple. But, while emphasis was thus laid upon the 
temple, there was growing up alongside of it the synagogue P8.74:8. 
with a function of a different kind. These were organized 
wherever there were a few Jews settled who wished to 
study the law. They especially supplied the religious 
needs of the many Jews scattered in many lands who 
were unable to make frequent visits to Jerusalem in 
order to participate in the splendid worship of the tem- 
ple. While the temple services centered about sacrifices 
and offerings, the service of the synagogue centered in 
the reading and interpretation of the law. 
See MoNTEFiORE, op. cit., pp. 390 f. 

(2) Sacrifice now took on more and more a propitia- Lev. 6 : 24— 7 : 9 ; 
tory character, being looked upon chiefly as atonement Numb., chaps. aS; 
for sin. The most minute regulations were made as to 

the details of every sacrifice, the manner in which the 
offering must be laid upon the altar, the disposition to 
be made of the fat and the blood, the garments to be 
worn by the officiating priest, etc. It seems as though 
the temple services must have been a constant succession 
of sacrifices. 

(3) Times and seasons received more attention than Lev. 19:3; 
ever before. The sabbath was particularly insisted upon ■ 31-12 i . 
as a sign of the covenant between Jehovah and his 

people. The penalty for performing any work on the 
sabbath was death. 

(4) The sabbatical year was now made wider in scope. Lev. 25:1-7. 
so as to include the land itself which was to be allowed 

to lie fallow. Furthermore, every fifty years an addi- 
tional year of jubilee was to be celebrated, thus making Lev. 25:8-55. 
two sabbatical years in succession. At this time all 
Hebrew slaves were to be released, and all land bought 
during the preceding forty-nine years was to revert to 
its original owners. 

(5) T\\e feasts provided for were the Passover and Lev. 23:4-8, 
Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Tabernacles, the Numb.28:iiff., 
New Moon, the Feast of Weeks, the New Year's Feast, Lev. 23': 15 ff.; 
and the Day of Atonement. They were all definitely dated Lev., chap. 16.' 



54 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

by month and day, and thus were still farther removed 
from their agricultural origin. The Feast of Taber- 
nacles was now celebrated in remembrance of the fact that 
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their journey in the 
wilderness. There was little difference in the manner of 
celebrating the various feasts — the most characteristic 
feature of them all is the endless sacrifices that accom- 
panied them. They were all to a large extent of an expia- 
tory nature ; nevertheless it was felt necessary to devote 
one day per year to the special work of expiation, viz., 
the Day of Atonement. 

(6) The public /as^s which, had been observed during 
the exile in commemoration of the exile and of the 
disasters connected with it were not incorporated into 
the new law, but seem to have come to an end in Zecha- 
riah's time. That fasting in general was highly esteemed 
as a means of propitiating Jehovah, and frequently prac- 

Lev. 23:32; ticed when occasion seemed to demand it, is clear in view 

joeTi-M;"^' of the place given to it in the regulations for the Day of 

Weh.^'iJI'g:!. Atonement, and the references to it in Joel and Nehemiah. 

Ezra, chap. 9; (7) O^/ier acts of worship. — Constant recourse was 

2:4V5~i9; had to prayer on the part of pious Jews. The chief 

i3?22.'*' ^'^^ ' objects of prayer seem to have been deliverance from 

dangers, help in trouble, and forgiveness of sin with 

resulting bestowal of blessings. 

Weh. 7:1; 11:23; That singing and music occupied a large place in 

45-47- ' worship is clear from the allusions to the singers in con- 

nection with the dedicatory exercises held when the wall 
of Jerusalem was completed, and from the large number 
of psalms that come from this period (see § 50). 

Lev. 19:26, 31; Soothsaying and magic ^t^xn to have been still prac- 

ticed, but were prohibited by the law, as was also necro- 
mancy. 

Lev. 22: 18, 21, 23; Vows w%xc recognized and provided for by the law. 

Ps. 84:1,2. §49- The Full Significance of This New Regime is 

hard to grasp. The comfort afforded by it to the people 
cannot be questioned. This strange system, which seems 
to us, in our love of freedom, so distasteful, was, after 
all, the highest result yet achieved in the development 
of Israel's religion. It was based upon the doctrines 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 55 

of the prophet-priests, viz., individualism and solidarity. 

Its keynote was monotheism. Its God was a God whose Lev. 19:1-4; 

•' 20: 26; 22: 15, 

supreme attribute was holiness, and who expected in 16,31-33. 

every individual of the sacred community a holiness like 
his own. The underlying thought was the overwhelm- 
ing sense of sin. Now, for the first time, the preaching 
of the prophets through all the centuries has found its 
place in the hearts of the people. The prayers are Pss. 106:6-47; 
prayers of confession. God has grown greater, and man *^°' 
more humble in the sight of God. God is the God of 
the whole world. Israel is a company of individuals in 
a sacred community. Every act of life must be holy. 
The religious feeling is deeper than ever before and 
more universal. Men are anxious. The people, bur- 
dened as they are with their anxiety, smitten as they 
are in their consciousness of sin, humbled by their 
ideal of God, take upon themselves the severest yoke 
ever placed by religion upon the neck of man. A serv- 
ice worthy of this supreme God must be regulated in its 
most minute details. The service everywhere presents 
the thought of sin. Sacrifice is now the great act, and 
is no longer accompanied by gladness and joy. It rep- Lev. 4:1—6:7. 
resents purification from sin. It is " the chief symbol, 
and the great mystery of their faith." To be holy one Lev., chap. 15; 
must wash ; one must touch no unclean thing; one must Exod. 31 :?'3-i7. 
not eat what is unclean ; one must observe the sabbath, 
the day of God ; and all these acts of worship cultivated 
the spirit of exclusiveness. Then followed that haughty 
spirit. "Man who would go up to the hill of Jehovah Lev. 21: 1-24. 
must now be the one who has not eaten shellfish or 
pork, nor opened his shop on the sabbath, nor touched 
a dead body, nor used a spoon handed him by a gentile 
without washing it." We know the outcome of all this, 
as it is shown us in the New Testament, but "it kept the 
people separate from the world and constant to their 
faith, and made them endure the greatest temptations 
and the severest persecutions, and so enabled them to 
preserve the precious treasure committed to them until 
the time should come when the world was to receive it 
from their hands." 



56 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 73-81; Kent, op. cit., pp. 213 f., 
249 ff.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 465-552; Wellhausen, op. cit.^ 
p. 497. 

§ 50. The Psalms of the Second Temple are now Written, 
and one fails to see the deeper meaning of all this if he 
forgets that in this period the greatest number of the 

Pss. 118; 121; 67. psalms were written. The old prophetic ideas, which the 
people in the times of the prophet had refused to accept, 
are now a part of the people's creed and are sung by 

Pss. 95; 46. them with joyous hearts in the congregation. Sacred 

Pss. 122 ; 138 ; 145 ; song becomes preeminently an act of worship. The 
worship of Jehovah in this act is as joyous and as delight- 
ful as it may be sad and grewsome in the act of sacrifice. 

Pss. 143:10; 139; In these very days, when such emphasis is laid upon the 
letter of the law, the service of song teaches that to obey 
Jehovah and to trust in him, to surrender one's self 
absolutely to him, is the end of all religion. Whatever 
may be the experience of life, it finds expression in these 
psalms ; whether it be " penitence, intellectual perplexity, 

Pss. 102; 91; 130; domestic sorrow, feebleness, loneliness, the approach 

Pss. 109; 116; 123. rill- f 1 r 

of death, the excitement of great events, the agony of 
persecution, or the quiet contemplation of nature." 
For each experience there is expression, and the heart- 
utterances which formed a part of the worship of this 
period, sung, to be sure, in the midst of the bleating of the 
lambs which are being slaughtered for the sacrifice, have 
proven to be the most satisfying utterances for the soul, 
in its deepest communion with God, which have ever 
reached the heart of man. The ritual may have been 
narrow, but the heart of every Jew was free. He was 
restrained outwardly, but no such restraint hindered him' 
in the working of his mind and heart. Here was con- 
tradiction, to be sure, but contradiction no greater than 
is found in the tendency to substitute the synagogue for 
the temple, which now exhibits itself in spite of the 
exclusiveness that was the end and the result of the 
Levitical system. 
§51. The Greek Period of Influence, 332-165 B. C, added nothing 
essential to the content or form of service. It furnished the test of 
Judaism for which the work of Ezra and Nehemiah had been an uncon- 
scious preparation. In the crisis through which the true religion was 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 57 

to pass the form given to it by these men was of inestimable value. 
In the words of Cornill :=" 

That the development of Judaism took this special direction was a neces- 
sity of the history of religion. 

For the heaviest struggle of Judaism still awaited it ; the struggle against 
Hellenism. One hundred and twenty-five years after Ezra, Alexander the 
Great destroyed the Persian empire and made the Greeks the sovereign peo- 
ple of the eastern world. Through this a profound transformation was begun, 
which spread with startling rapidity and irresistible might, and led finally to 
the denationalizing of the East. That which the Assyrian had undertaken 
by brute force the Hellenes surmounted by the superior power of mind and 
culture. Greece destroyed the nationalities of the East by amalgamating 
them with itself and conquering them inwardly. Only one eastern nation 
withstood the process of dissolution, yea, more, absorbed into itself the good 
of Hellenism, and thus enriched and strengthened its own existence ; and that 
was the Jewish. If it were able to do this, it was because Ezra and Nehe- 
miah had rendered it hard as steel and strong as iron. In this impenetrable 
armor it was insured against all attacks, and thus saved religion against 
Hellenism. And, therefore, it behooves us to bless the prickly rind to which 
alone we owe it that the noble core remained preserved. 

With this WG may close our rapid survey of the history of the 
development of Israel's worship. In the light of this survey we 
shall next consider the more important special divisions included 
in it, viz., the laws, the histories, and the psalms. 

*0p. cit., pp. 162 f. 



Paet Thied 



COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES 

OF WORSHIP 

V. Laws and Usages Concerning the Priest. 

VL Laws and Usages Concerning the Place of Worship. 

VII. Laws and Usages Concerning Sacrifice. 

VIIL Laws and Usages Concerning Feasts. 

IX. Laws and Usages Concerning the Sabbath. 

X. Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean. 

XL Laws and Usages Concerning Prayer and Related Forms 
OF Worship. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§ 52. To Speak of the History of Worship, as It is Presented in the 
Old Testament, is to take for granted (1) that there were periods, (2) 
that these periods differed from each other to a greater or less extent, 
and (3) that there was either growth or decay, or perhaps both. The 
brief survey, just finished, distinguished three such periods, each with 
its peculiar characteristics, and presented what seemed to be a striking 
case of development, i. e.^ growth from a lower and less complicated 
form of worship to one higher and more complicated. These periods 
were called early, middle, and later. 

§ 53. Each Period Had a Lawbook or Code of Legislation Peculiar to 
Itself, viz.: (i) the Covenant Code (§14, (3)) for the early period, 
(2) the Deutero?iomic Code (§27) for the middle period, and (3) the 
Levitical Code (§43) for the later period. Injunctions concerning 
nearly every topic relating to worship are found in each of these codes. 
These injunctions are sometimes couched in language almost the same ; 
in other cases there are to be noted differences (additions or varia- 
tions) of an important character ; in still other cases they are quite 
contradictory. These differences, it is clear, exist because through 
succeeding centuries the people {a) changed their place of abode, 
€. g., from the desert to Canaan, from Canaan to Babylon, and back 
again ; (d) changed also their form of life, passing from the nomadic to 
the agricultural, and from the agricultural to the more centralized or city 
life ; (c) changed their form of government, passing from a tribal form 
to the monarchical, and from that to a theocratic or hierarchical form; 
(tf) came into contact with different nations, from whom much was 
learned, e. g., the Canaanites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the 
Persians, and the Greeks ; {e) were given great leaders, lawgivers, kings, 
and prophets, through whom, from time to time, new and better ideas 
of God and worship were taught. 

Now, the different codes named above, as they severally appear and 
are adopted by the nation, reflect the onward and upward movement 
of the people toward the great goal of the nation's history, the time 
when Jesus Christ shall come and teach as men had never taught 

61 



62 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

before. These codes, then, are different expressions of the usage and 
law of successive epochs. To understand any special topic connected 
with worship, one must examine systematically what each code con- 
tains on that topic. This is the comparative study of the laws relating 
to worship. 

§ 54. The Constructive Study of a Subject is Possible Only on the 
Basis of the Comparative Study. — It is not the earliest usage in a par- 
ticular case, e. g., a distinction between the priest and the laity, nor the 
latest, that gives us a true idea of Israelitish thought and custom ; it 
is, rather, the latest as growing out of and including, not only the 
earliest, but all the intervening steps between the two. At no one 
time did growth or decay stop ; and it is only when we have the whole 
process before us that we begin to understand its significance. 

§ 55. Side by Side with the Codes We Find in the Hexateuch Also His- 
tories which refer frequently to customs of worship. It is interesting 
to note that each code is imbedded in a separate history; e. g., {a) the 
Covenant Code is a part of a great /r^/-^<f//V history beginning with the 
creation and continuing down to the times of the Judges ; {b) the Deu- 
teronomic Code (Deut., chaps. 12-26) is a part of a history which is 
found, not only in the earlier part of Deuteronomy, but also in some 
places in Joshua, and elsewhere ; while {c) the Priest Code is also closely 
connected with a history which begins with Gen. i : i and continues 
through Numbers. In studying the subject of worship, it is of interest 
to note what is said in these histories concerning each subject considered. 

§ 56. The Later Histories contained in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, 
and Chronicles give especial attention to the subject of worship. Just 
as the history in the books of Samuel and Kings is written from the 
prophetic point of view, that in these later books is written from the 
priestly point of view (see § 10), and hence gives much information con- 
cerning the institutions of worship as they existed at the time these 
books were written. 

§57. The Prophets Were Always Deeply Interested in Matters of 
Worship; sometimes, as opponents of the ideas and practices existing 
in their day, they were trying to introduce new and better ideas ; at 
other times, as allies of the priesthood, they were striving to awaken the 
zeal of the nation in behalf of the worship of Jehovah. In either case 
their writings contain much that is of value in a study of the develop- 
ment of Israel's ideas concerning worship. 

§ 58. The Priest Code, Manifestly, Is the Great Source of Informa- 
tion upon the subject of worship, because {a) it contains the fullest 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 63 

presentation of each subject ; {b) it is from the hands of the priests 
themselves, who were most deeply interested ; and {c) it presents the 
latest stage of growth. But this Priest Code is itself a growth, and 
contains at least four strata of material, each of which represents a 
different age and stage of development. These are : 

1. The Holiness Code, contained in Lev., chaps. 17-26, a body of 
laws which, as the name implies, lays especial emphasis upon the 
thought of the holiness of God and the necessity of corresponding 
holiness on the part of his people. 

2. A collection of priestly teachings in reference to various sacri- 
ficial and ritualistic matters. 

3. A set of miscellaneous materials, such as genealogical lists, 
elaborations of laws, and illustrative narratives. 

4. A historical narrative from the creation up to the settlement in 
Canaan, which forms the basis of the P document, the three preceding 
elements having been incorporated into it. 

See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 6th ed., pp. 
126-59; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 169-91 ; J. E. Car- 
penter AND G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 121-57. 

§ 59. The Priest of Early Times, that is, as described in (^) the 
Covenant Code ; {V) the historical material of J and E ; {c) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and {d) the 
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances." 

I. The only allusion in the Covenant Code."" 
Exod. 20 : 26. 

*0n the date, character, contents, and limits of these various documents see 
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament; also J. E. Carpenter 
and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch; W. E. Addis, The Documents of the 
Hexateuch; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch ; HOLZINGER, Einleitung 
in den Hexateuch; Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexateuch" in Encyclopcedia 
Biblica; F. H. WOODS, article "Hexateuch" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; 
KUENEN, An Historico- Critical Inquiry into the Origin of the Hexateuch; Well- 
liAXiSTL'S, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 228-39 1; Steuernagel, Allgemeine 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch {^Handkommentar zum Alt. Test., I. Abtheilung, 3. Band, 
pp. 249-86) ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, "The Pentateuchal Question," in 
Hebraica,Vo\.V, pp. 18-73, 137-89, 243-91 ; Vol. VI, pp. 1-48, 109-38, 161-211 
241-95; Vol. VII, pp. 1-38, 104-42; Vol. VIII, pp. 15-64, 174-243. 

For a discussion of these questions from a different point of view see especially 
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts; cf also Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and 
Structure; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch and Moses and the 
Prophets. 

^ The following references are from the J document : Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12:8; 22 : 13 
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 19 : 22 ; 32 : 25-29 ; 4 : 14-17 ; 32 : 1 ff.; and the following from the E 
document : Exod. 20 : 26 ; 24 : 4-8 ; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1 ; 10:6; Josh. 24 : 33. 



64 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

2. Non-priests frequently do priestly work. 

Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12 : 8 ; 22 : 13 ; Exod. 33 :7-ii ; 24 : 4-8 ; Judg. 13: 19; 
I Sam. 7:1; 13 :8-T4 ; 2 Sam. 6: 14-18 ; i Kings 18:30-38. 

3. The story of Micah's priest. 
Judg., chaps. 17 and 18. 

4. The consecration of the priest. 

Exod. 19 : 22 ; Judg. 17 : 5, 12 ; i Sam. 7:1. 

5. The service rendered by the priest. 

I Sam. 4:4; 7:1; I Kings i : 34 ; i Sam. 21:1-9; Hos. 4:6; Mic. 
3:11; Isa. 28 17. 

6. Priests were consulted as soothsayers. 
Judg. 18:5.6; I Sam. 23:6-13 ; 3o:7£E. 

7. The tribe of Levi. 

Exod. 32 : 25-29 ; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1. 

8. Aaron and his descendants. 

Exod, 4 : 14-17 ; 32 : 1 £f.; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 24 : 33. 

9. The sons of Eli and their behavior. 

I Sam. 1:3; 2 : 22-25 ; 4 : 4 ; i Kings 2 : 27. 

10. Elijah and the priests of Baal. 
I Kings 18: 19-40. 

11. The prophets' estimate of the priest. 

Hos. 4 : 6-9 ; 5:1; 6:9; Amos 7:10-17; Mic. 3 : 11 ; Isa. 28 : 7. 

12. The priest's dress and equipment. 

1 Sam. 2:18; Judg. 17:5; 18:14,20; i Sam. 23 : 6, 9-12 ; 30:7,8. 

13. The priest's maintenance. 

Judg. 17:10; 18:4; I Sam. 2 : 12-17 ; 2 Kings 12:16. 

14. The high-priest. 

2 Kings 12 : 10 (?). 

§ 60. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What is the significance of the lack of any reference to priest in 
the Covenant Code (see § 15, (2))? 

2. What connection is there between this lack of reference and the 
fact that laymen in early times acted as their own priests ? Is there 
evidence that in cases where non-priests offered sacrifice they were doing 
so {a) through regularly appointed priests, or {b) by special divine 
authority ? 

3. Consider from the story of Micah's priest {a) the character of 
the times, {b) the existence of idolatry, (c) the place of the priest 

(</.§l6,(2)). 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 6$ 

4. How early and in what way were priests set apart or consecrated ? 

5. Formulate a list of the various functions performed by the priest 
in those days. 

6. To what extent did people consult the priest about the ordinary 
affairs of life ? Cf. the case of Samuel (i Sam. 9 : 6 ff., 19 f.). 

7. With what events and in what connection do the references to 
the tribe of Levi in this period appear ? 

8. Trace the line of Aaron as it is indicated down to later times. 
What, according to the tradition, was Aaron's official relation to Moses ? 

9. From the story of Eli's sons, point out {a) the basis of their 
right to be priests, (B) their functions as priests, {c) the various ways in 
which they abused their office. 

10. Consider, in the story of Elijah and the priest-prophets of 
Baal, {a) the significance of the large number of prophets of Baal, {b) 
the non-priestly character of Elijah. 

11. Enumerate, one by one, the shortcomings of the priests which 
are criticised by the prophets, and consider whether this state of things 
owed its existence {a) to a growing formality and emptiness of the 
Israelitish religion, or {h) to the influence exerted on the Israelitish 
religion by the neighboring religion, which was very sensual in its 
character, or {c) to the fact that now for the first time the prophets are 
holding up these high ideals, the priest-practice in Israel, as among 
other nations, having always been upon a low plane. 

12. Consider the references to the priests' dress and equipment, 
and explain particularly the ephod, the Urim, and Thummim.^ 

13. What evidence is there that the priest in this period had any 
special perquisites or any regular maintenance ? 

14. How much may fairly be inferred as to the functions and 
authority of the high-priest in this period ? 

3 See the article " Ephod," by G. F. Moore, in Encyclopcsdia Biblica; the article 
"Ephod," by S. R. Driver, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; van Hoonacker, 
Le Sacerdoce levitique, pp. 370 £f.; KONIG, Religious History of Israel, pp. 107 ff.; G. F. 
Moore, /«^^.?j, p. 381; Konig, Hauptprobleme, pp. 59-63; Foote, "The Biblical 
Ephod," \ti Johns Hopkins University Circulars, yi2,y, 1900. On " Urim and Thum- 
mim" see Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {i?)()t,)\ Kirkpatrick, The First Book of 
Samuel {Czmhx'idgt Bible Series), pp. 217 f.; Kalisch, Exodus, p. 544; Wellhau- 
SEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 394 f.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament 
in the Jewish Church, 2d ed., p. 292, note I; T. WiTTON Davies, yJ/ag-zV, Divina- 
tion and Demonology, p. 75 ; Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series), 
p. 33 ; NowacK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger, 
Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 £.; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alltestatnent- 
lichen Priesterthums untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, 
pp. 156, 471-3, 505 f., 517 f- 



66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§6i. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid- 
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History," 
observing the following suggestions: (i) include only what can be 
corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above); 
(2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of 
few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what 
did not exist. 

§62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a) 
in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b^ in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deuter- 
onomic period." 

1. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class. 

Deut. 10: 8; 18:1 ; i Sam. 2 : 28 ; Jer. 1:18; 8:1; 13: 13; 23 : 33 f.; 
26:7 £., II, 16; 28: I, 5 ; 33:21 ; 34: 19- 

2. The service rendered by "the priests the Levites." 

Deut. 10 :8 ; 21 :5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 ff. ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8, 
9, 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 20:2; 24:8 ; Jer. 18 : 18. 

3. The prophets' estimate of the priest. 

Jer. 2:8; 5:31 ; 6: 13 ; 14: 18; 23:11 ; 32:32; Zeph. 3:4. 

4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons. 

1 Sam. 2 : 27-36. 

5. The relative authority of priest and prophet. 
Jer. 29:25 £.; 5 :3i ; 20: I £f. ; II : 18-23; cf. i :i. 

6. Differences of rank within the priestly order. 

2 Kings 23 : 4, 8, 9 ; Jer. 52 : 24 ; 29 : 25 i .; 19:1; Deut. 18 : 6 f. 

7. Maintenance of "the priests the Levites." 
Deut. 10.9; 12:12; 18:1-8; 14:27,29. 

8. Residence of priests. 

Deut. 18 : 6, 7 ; Jer. i : i ; cf. 11:21, 22 ; 32 : 6 ff.; Jer. 29 : i . 

9. Priests consulted as soothsayers. 
Deut. 33 : 8. 

§63. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Consider the circumstances which, ordinarily, would encourage 
the building up of a special priest class. What connection existed 
between the centralization of worship in Jerusalem (§27, (2) ; cf. Deut., 
chap. 12) and the growth of a special class of priests? What is 
implied in the constantly recurring phrase " the priests the Levites" 

4 References printed in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in 
Deuteronomy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 67 

{cf. Deut. 17:18; i8:i;2i:5;27:9;3i:9)? Does it mean {cf. Deut. 
10:8) that all priests were Levites and all Levites priests ? 

2. Formulate the different functions which together made up the 
service of " the priest the Levite," distinguishing between regular and 
special functions. Consider the difference between the work of the 
prophet, the wise (man), and the priest (Deut. 18 : 18; Jer. 18:18). 

3. What, according to the prophets, is the priest's attitude toward 
Jehovah and the true religion ? 

4. Compare the later view (i Sam. 2 : 27-36) of the wickedness of 
Eli's sons with the former (i Sam. 2 : 12-17, 22-25), "o^^ the points of 
change, and consider to what extent this is in harmony with Deuter- 
onomic representations. 

5. Recall the authority of the prophet {a) in the days of Saul, 
David, Solomon ; (B) in the days of Elijah and Isaiah ; and {c) consider 
to what extent, in the days of Jeremiah, the prophet had lost authority, 
while the priest had gained it. 

6. Indicate the extent to which differences of rank had come to 
exist among the priests, and the significance of this fact. 

7. Enumerate very accurately the sources of income and main- 
tenance which were enjoyed by " the priests the Levites." 

8. Were there special places of residence assigned to " the priests 
the Levites"? Did priests own property? 

9. Is there anything additional to be said about the use of Urim 
and Thummim ? 

§64. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid- 
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in the Middle Period of Israelitish 
History" — that is, the so-called Deuteronomic period — discussing par- 
ticularly {a) the class system, {p) the higher position now occupied, 
{c) the functions, (d) the maintenance provided by law. 

§65. The Priest as Described by EzekieL 

1. Ezekiel himself was a priest. 
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 

2. Priesthood was limited to the sons of Zadok. 

Ezek. 44 : 15 f.; 40 : 46 ; 43 : 19, 24-27 ; 44 :6-3i ; 48 : il. 

3. The priest's dress. 
Ezek. 42 : 14; 44 : 17-19. 

4. Special ''holiness" was required of priests. 
Ezek. 4:14; 44:20-22,25-27,31. 

5. Service rendered by priests. 

Ezek. 44 : II. I4. 15. 16, 23 f. ; 40 : 46 ; 43 : 21, 24, 27. 



68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. Residence of priests. 

Ezek. 48 : 10-14 ; 42 : 13 f.; 46 : 19-24. 

7. Maintenance of priests. 
Ezek. 42 : 13 f.; 44 : 28-30. 

§ 66. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the significance of the fact that Ezekiel, and also Jere- 
miah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi — all the later prophets — were 
priests. Note that Ezekiel preached his visions of Israel's glorious 
future after the fall of Jerusalem. Consider the circumstances which 
led him to foresee and proclaim a system so exclusively ecclesiastical. 

2. What limitation of the priesthood does he introduce, and why? 
In what respect is this an advance upon the Deuteronomic usage ? 

3. Consider the regulations made concerning the priest's dress; 
what was their purpose ? 

4. Enumerate the particular requirements made of the priests which 
were intended to mark their holiness, and show, in each case, how this 
was to be secured. In what sense is the word " holy " to be understood ? 

5. Indicate in what particulars the service required of the priest in 
Ezekiel's code differs from that of the Deuteronomic Code (§62, (2) ); 
and show the principles underlying these changes. 

6. What was to be the place of the priests' residence, and its 
extent ? The meaning of the word " oblation " ? 

7. Prepare in detail a list of the items mentioned which should 
serve as the maintenance of the priest. Is there any variation from 
those mentioned in Deuteronomy ? 

§67. Constructive Work. — Prepare a paper showing how the priest, 
as seen in Ezekiel's vision, differed from the priest of the Deutero- 
nomic times. 

§ 680 The Priest of the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the 
laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the 
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.^ 

1. Distinction between priests and Levites everywhere presupposed. 
Numb. 4: 1-15, 19; 8:14-26; 18:1-7; 17:1-11; 25:10-13; I Chron. 
6:49-53. 

2. Special holiness required of priestly class. 
Lev. 21 : 1-9, 17-23 ; 22 : 1-8 ; 10 : 6 ; Exod. 30 : 19. 

3. Service rendered by priests. 

Lev. 10:8-11; Numb. 4 : 4-14, 16; Lev. 16:32; 6:20-22; Hag. 2:11-13; 
Mai. 2 :4-7; Numb. 18:1-7; 27:21; 2 Chron. 19:8, 11. 
5 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 69 

4. Service rendered by Levites. 

Numb. 4:1-3. 15, 21-33; 2:17; 3:23-26, 29-32, 35-38; 18:1-7; 
3:5-10; Ezra 6: 20; Neh. 1 1 : 15-18, 22 ; i Chron. 6 : 31-48; 15:2; 
23:27-32 ; 26:20-32; 2 Chron. 5 :4f.; 19:8, 11. 

5. Influence and numbers of priestly class. 

Lev. 16 : 32 ; Numb. 4 : 19, 27 f .. 33 ; 3:1-4; 4 : 34-49 *, 35 : 25-34 *, Hag. 
1:1,12,14; Zech. 3:1-10; 6:9£f. (?); Ezra 1:5; 2:61-63,70; 
3:2, 8-13; 5:2; 6:16; T.'], 13, 16; 8:15-20, 29 f.; Neh. 
11:15-18,22; 12:1-26; 3:20,22,28; 5:12; I Chron. 6 : 1-47 ; 
9:10-34; 23: 1-24. 

6. Place and work of the high-priest. 

Numb. 35 : 25-34 ; Lev. 16 : 4-32 ; 6 : 22 ; Exod. 29 : 9 ; Numb. 27 : 21 ; 
Zech. 3 : i-io ; 6 : 9 £f. (?); Neh. 13:4, 28-30. 

7. Consecration of high-priest. 

Lev. 21 : 10-15 ; 6 : 20-22 ; 8 : 12, 14-36 ; Exod., chap. 29 ; Lev., chap. 
9 ; Numb. 20 : 23-29. 

8. Dress of priests. 

Neh. 7 : 70-73 ; Lev. 6 : 10 1; 8 : 1-9, 13, 30 ; Exod., chap. 28; 39 : 1-31 ; 
40 : 13 f . 

9. Residence of priests. 

I Chron. 6:54-81; Josh. 21:1-42; Numb. 35:2-8; Neh. 11:3; 
Numb. 2:17; 3 : 23-26, 29-32, 35-38. 

10. Maintenance of priests. 

Lev. 27 : 30-33 ; chap. 7 ; Numb. 3 :4648 ; Ezra 7 : 24 ; Neh. 12 : 44-47; 
13:10-14; Numb. 18: 20 f., 24-31. 

11. Courses of priests and Levites. 

Ezra 6:18; I Chron. 24: i — 26: 19 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 11 f.; 8 : 12-15. 

12. Prophets' estimate of the priests. 

Hag. 2: 1 1-13 ; Zech. 3:1-10 ; 6 : 9 ff. ; Mai. i : 6-10 ; 2 : 4-9; 3:3; 
Isa. 61:6; 66 : 2 1 ; Joel 1:9, 13; 2:17. 

§ 69. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Is there anywhere {cf. Neh. 11 : 20) in the post-exilic literature a 
passage in which the words "priest" and *'Levite" are synonymous? 
Cf. Ueut. (§62, (i)), and consider {a) the circumstances which have 
led to this differentiation, {p) its significance, and {c) the great change 
which has taken place since the time when everyone might be his own 
priest {cf. §§58, (2); 15, (2)). 

2. What special limitations were imposed upon the priests (Aaron's 
sons) to secure their holiness ? 

3. Enumerate carefully the kinds of service expected of the priests 



70 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(Aaron's sons), and note how it differs from that required in Deuter- 
onomy of " the priests the Levites." 

4. Enumerate the kinds of service required of the Levites, and note 
the extent to which this service was in older times the work of *'the 
priest the Levite." 

5. What are the facts concerning the numbers of the priestly classes 
in this later period ? Are they larger or smaller ? Is their influence 
greater or less ? What is the full significance of these facts ? 

6. What part has the high-priest played in the priestly work of 
earlier times ? What is his place and work at this time ? 

7. What are the details of the consecration of the high-priest, and 
their interpretation ? 

8. Is more care now given to the peculiar dress of the high-priest ? 
If so, in what details, and for what reason ? 

9. What special places are set apart for the residence of priests ? 
Consider from various points of view the cities of refuge, noting espe- 
cially the absence of any reference to them as Levitical cities in Deu- 
teronomy (19 : 1-13). 

10. What additions appear to the sources of income of the priests 
and Levites ? Can the priests any longer be classed with the father- 
less and widow as in Deut. 14 : 28, 29 ? 

11. What is to be understood by the classification of the priests 
and Levites into courses and divisions ? 

12. How did the prophet, although himself a priest, estimate the 
priests of his times ? 

§ 70. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of material in §69 write 
a paper on the priest in later Israelitish history, noting especially 
such points as indicate changes in comparison with preceding periods. 

§71. Literature to be Consulted. 

Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXXVI (1865); 
S. I. CuRTiss, The Levitical Priests (1877); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Israel (1878), pp. 1 21-51; Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religions 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 314-17; Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883), PP- 
78-83, 127-31; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part I, pp. 559-659; Schurer, 
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ {1SS6), Second Division, Vol. I, 
pp. 207-305; W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyclopcedia Britannica (1889); 
Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 
65-70, 1 16-18, etc.; SCHULTZ, Old Testa?nent Theology {i?,()2), see Index ; Kittel, 
History of the Hebrews (1892), see Index; E. H. Plumptre, article "Priest" in 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 2d ed. (1892); Driver, Deuteronomy {\x\X.t.xvi2X\Qy\^dX 
Critical Commentary, 1895), see Index; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 70. 
183; ^-^.IGGS, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch {i^g'j), ^p. IC4; Pick, " The Jewish 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 7 1 

High Priests Subsequent to the Return from Babylon," in Lutheran Church Review, 
1898, pp. 127-42, 370-75, 655-64; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria 
(1898), see Index; Toy, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Polychrome Bible, 1899), 
pp. 193 f.; W. R. Harper, "The Priestly Element in the Old Testament as Seen in 
the Laws," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 258-66 ; Duff, Old Testament The- 
ology (1891-1900), see Index; G. A. Cooke, article "Levi" in Hastings' Dictionary 
of the Bible (1900); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), 
see Index; Walker, " The Levitical Priesthood," Journal of Biblical Literature^ 
1900, pp. 124-37 ; Berlin, "Notes on Genealogies of the Tribe of Levi in i Chron. 
23-26," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. XII (1900), pp. 291-8 ; Laidlaw, "The Priest 
and the Prophet," Expository Times, 1900 ; H. M. Chadwicke, "Ancient Teutonic 
Priesthood," Folk-Lore, Vol. XI (1900), pp. 268-309 ; Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: 
Studies in the Priesthood and the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901). 

Graf, " Zur Geschichte des Stammes Levi," in Merx, Archiv fiir wissenschaft- 
liche Erforschung des Alten Testa?nentes, Vol. I (1867), pp. 68-106, 208-36 ; Maybaum, 
Die Entwicklung des altisraelitischen Priesterthums (1880); Smend, Der Prophet 
Ezechiel {i?)?>o), pp. 360-62; KiTTEL, " Die Priester und Leviten," in Theologische 
Studien aus Wilrtemberg ,'Sf oA. II (1881), pp. 147-69; Vol. Ill, pp. 278-314; Kuenen, 
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testaments (1885), Vol. I, pp. 
281 ff.; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887), Vol. I, pp. 152 ff., 468 ff.; Baudis- 
sin. Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889); H. Vogelstein, 
Der Kampf zwischen Priestern und Leviten seit den Tagen Ezechiels. Eine historisch- 
kritische Untersuchung (1889); KuENEN, "Die Geschichte des Jahwepriesterthums 
und das Alter des Priestergesetzes " (1889), in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, y>^. ^()<,- 
500; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d 
ed. 1899), see Index; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 405-28; 
NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 87-130; Marti, 
Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 44 ff., 50, 72, etc.* H. Boury, Les 
Pretres d^ Israel {i^g^) ; Yi'U'MM.'Ei.xu'E.R, Das vormosaische Priesterthum in Israel (iSgg); 
VAN HOONACKER, Le Sacerdoce levitique (1899), and " Les Pretres et les Ldvites dans 
le livre d'Ezekiel," Revue biblique, 1899, pp. 177-205. 

See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Ilolzinger, and Gunkel on 
Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and 
Baentsch on Leviticus ; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy ; and of 
Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel. 

§72. Supplementary Topics . 

1. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and 
from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ; 
110:4; 115:10, 12; 118:3; 132:9,16; 133:2; 134:1-3; 135:19!. 
formulate the thought relating to t he /r/<?j-/ which is found in the Psalter. 

2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of th^ priest 
occur in the Wisdom Literature, /. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
and Song of Songs ? 

3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament 
writings,^, g., Matt. 2:4;8:4; 12:4 f-J 16:21; 20: 18; 21:15; 26 :3; 
27 : i; Mark 2 : 26 ; Luke i : 5, 8, 9 ; 10 : 31 ; 17 : 14; John i : 19; 



72 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Acts 4: i, 36; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4: 14 f. ; 5: 1,5 f., 10; 6:20; 
chap. 7; 8 : I, 3 f.; 9 :6 f., 11, 25 ; 10:11,21 ; 13 :ii; i Peter 2 : 5, 9; 
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20 :6; etc., and indicate such points of difference, 
as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa- 
ment, as seem most important. 

4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians, 
the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ- 
ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica ; the articles 
" Pontifex" and " Sacerdos " in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and 
Antiquities; Martha, Les Sacerdoces atheniens. 

5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words 
for priest, in Hebrew Iflbj Greek Upeik., hsitin sacerdos. 

Cf. W. R. Smith, article " Priest " in Encyc. Brit, Vol. XIX, p. 746 ; Nowack, 
Hebr. Arch., Vol. II, pp. 89 f. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 130 f. 

6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs, 
and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note 
points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among 
the Hebrews. 

See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index) ; W. R. Smith, 
Religion of the Semites {Index) ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments 
{Index); Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical 
Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Cus- 
toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff. 

7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that 
their nation was a kingdom of priests {cf. Exod. 19 : 6), the basis of this 
conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it 
exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, e. g., with the 
idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con- 
ception of their relation to the world. 

8. Consider, in general, what may be called the outside functions of 
the priest,/.^., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g., 
his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; i Sam. 4:4, 11; in 
education. Lev. 10 : 11 ; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13 ; in administration of justice, 
Deut. 17:8 f., 12; 19:17; 21:5; in prophecy, Deut. 33:8; Jer. 1:1; 
Ezek. 1:3; 4 : 14. 

9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement 
showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence, 
the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of \ht priesthood 
about 165 B. C. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73 

See, ^. ^., I Mace, chap . 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 ff.^ 
20-25, 33-38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27, 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ff., 42; 
14: 20, 23, 27-49 ; 15 : I f., 6, 21, 24 ; 16: 11 £f., 24; 2 Mace, i : 15 £f., 19-36 ; 
2:17; 3:1, 9, i5f., 21, 32-36; 4:72.. 24, 29; 11:3 ; 14 :3» 7. 13; 15 : 12. 

10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to 
the prophet ; e. g.^ (a) Was there an early time and a later time when 
the two offices were not clearly distinguished ? (d) What were the 
circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction? 
(c) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in 
struggle with the prophet ? (^) What was the relation of each to the 
other (i) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ? 

11. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between 
God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class 
of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ? 
What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi- 
ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID- 
ERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described 
in (a) the Covenant Code, (d) the historical material of J and E, (c) 
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and(^ 
the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). 

1. The only reference in the Covenant Code.' 
Exod. 20 :24ff. 

2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to 
convenience. 

Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24f.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg. 
20 : 18, 26 £f.; 21 : 4. 

3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God. 
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; Numb. 11:16 f., 24 f.; 12 : 4-10 ; i Kings 2 : 28-30. 

4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic 
of the divine presence. 

Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27. 

5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made. 

Exod. 3: i; 20:24; Numb. 23:1-6, 14-17 ; Judg. 6 : 18-26 ; 13:15- 
23; 20:18, 26 ff.; 21:4; I Sam. 1:3, 21; 2:14; 3:1-21, 10:8; 
14 : 35 ; I Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7. 

6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah. 
2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; I Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16; 
15:35^/ i8:i5f. 

7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred. 
I Kings 2 : 28-30. 

8. The prophets make reference to places of worship. 

Amos 2:8;3:i4;4:4; 5^5; 7:9. 13; 8:14; 9:1; Isa. 1:12; 6: i, 4; 
8:14; Hos. 4 :i3, 15; 8:1; 9: 4, 8, 15; 10: 8; 12: 11; Mic. 3 : 12. 

§ 74. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, (a) the meaning of 
the emphasis laid on eart/i as the material for the altar ; (i) the reason 

* The following are J-references: Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24f.; 35:14; 
Exod. 33:7-11 (?); Numb, ii: i6f.,24 f.; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6, 
14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen, 28 : 17, 24; Exod. 20:24 £f.; Numb. 
12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod. 3:1; Deut. 27:5-7. 

74 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75 

for objection to stone as a material ; (c) the reason for objection to 
steps ; and (d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation. 

(C/.§i5.) 

2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the 
altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they 
pitched their tents ? {C/. § 15 (i) .) 

• 3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent 
of meeting, and note the uses made of it. 

4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel, 
or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ? 

5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should 
be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the 
use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro- 
duced ? ((y. §18(1).) 

6. W^hat were the political and social factors that were connected 
with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor- 
ship might be expected to follow ? (Of. § 17 (i) (d) .) 

7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place 
of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ?* 

8. What impression does one gather from the references made by 
the prophets to places of worship ? 

§ 75. Place of Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in 
(a) the laws of Deuteronomy, (d) the utterances of the Deuteronomic 
prophets, and (c) the Deuteronomic histories. 

1. All local sanctuaries are prohibited.^ 

Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20. 

2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship. 

Deut. 12:5-8, II, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; i5:i9f.; 16:2, 5-7, 
II, 15 1; 26: 2 ; I Kings 12 : 25 — 13 : 6 ; 21:7; 22 : 3-8. 

3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice. 
Deut. 17 :8ff. 

4. The ark is the receptacle of the two stone tables of the law. 
Deut. 10: 1-5, 8. 

5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple. 

Ter. 7: 1-5, 10-15 ; 12 : 7; 17: 12, 26; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2 : 20. 
^ Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article 
"Asylum "in Encyclopcedia Biblica; J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism and 
Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, K'^xW, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" \n Realen- 
cyclopddie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft ; Barth, De Asylis Graecis. 

3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- 
omy. 



'j(i PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. The destruction of Solomon's temple. 

2 Kings 25 19, 13-16. 
§ 76. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the circumstances which, in the course of centuries, led 
to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this 
revolution in practice ? (Cf. § 28 (3).) 

2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed 
the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ; 
on the general intelligence of the people ; on the relative position of 
men and women ; on habits of life ? {Cf. § 28 (7).) 

3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the 
relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the 
effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life ? 

4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use 
to which it was put. 

5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in 
the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened. 

6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of 
Solomon's temple. 

§ 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel. 

1. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars. 
Ezek. 6 1 3, 4. 6, 13. 

2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful 
sanctuary. 

Ezek. 20 : 40. 

3. The temple is desecrated by those who profane its use. 
Ezek. 8". 3-18; 23:38 f.; 44:6-8. 

4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the 
temple. 

Ezek. 25 : 3. 

5. The future temple. 

Ezek. 37:26-28; 40:5 — 43:17; 44:9; 45 :3; 46 :i-3; 46:19-24; 
48:8 f., 21. 
§ 78. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the fact that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there 
still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact. 

2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in 
the future {cf. § 31 {a)). 

3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple 
in his times ? 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP ^J^ 

4. Consider the relation of Ezekiel's temple [i. e., the temple of 
his vision) to that of Solomon, {a) architecturally, {b) in the promi- 
nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship. 

§ 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described 
{a) in the laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly prophets, and 
{c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 

1. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary.'* 
Lev. 17 : 1-9; Exod. 29 : 42-45; 2 Chron. 11:16; Neh. 8:16; cf. 
Isa. 19: 19. 

2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned. 

Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : 9-34 ; Isa. 27 : 9; i Chron. 21 : 28 f.; 2 
Chron. 1:1-5; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17. 

3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings. 

Exod. 25:8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb. 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f . ; 
Lev. 24 : 1-4 ; Numb. 7: 1-83. 

4. Description of the ark. 

Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. i : 1-5. 

5. The building of Solomon's temple. 

1 Chron. 17 : I £f.; 2i:i5£f.; 2i:28f.; 22:6£f.; 23: iff.; 28:1-3 
11-21 ; 2 Chron. 2 : 1 — 5 :i ; chaps. 6 and 7. 

6. The building of the second temple. 

Ezra I :2ff.; 2 :68 ; 3 :8-i3 : 5 :2-5 ; 5 :6 ff.; 6: 3ff.,i4ff.; 7: 19-23 

7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life. 
Numb. 9 : 15-23. 

8. Later views of the place of Solomon's temple in Israel's wor- 
ship. 

2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 2j:2i.\ chap. 29. 

9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation. 
Exod. 25 : 22 ; 29 : 43 ; Numb. 16 : 41 ff.; Mai. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89. 

10. The altar of burnt-offering. 

Lev. 1:10 ff.; 6:9-13; Numb. 16 : 36-40; 7:84-88. 

11. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary. 

Isa. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ; Hag. i : 2-4, 7 f.; 2 : 3, 9 ; Zech. i ; 16 ; 4:9; 
6:12-15; 8:9; I4:i6ff.; Mai. 3 : i ; Mic. 4 : 1-4 ; Joel i : 9, 13 f. 
16 ; Dan. 8:11; 9:17; 1 1 :3i. 

12. Holiness of the sanctuary. 

Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb. 3:31 f.; 4:4-15; Neh. 6:10 f.; 
13 : 4 ff-; 2 Chron. 33 : 4. 7. 15 ; 36: 17 ; Dan. 8:11; 9:17; 11 :3i. 

♦ References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 80. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the 
middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central 
sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for 
granted. 

2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc- 
tuaries which had existed in earlier times. 

3. Note (a) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described; 
(d) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of 
view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (i) literally, 
a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a 
piece of splendid idealization, similar in some respects to Ezekiel's 
vision. What is involved in each of these propositions? 

4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the 
purpose it was intended to serve? 

5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo- 
mon's temple with those in Kings (§73 (6)), and classify the results of 
the comparison. 

6. Consider in the case of the second temple (a) the date of its 
erection ; (d) its relative size and character in comparison with the 
first ; (c) the special circumstances under which it was built. 

7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's 
religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23? 

8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in 
Israel's worship. 

9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary 
as a place for manifesting his presence? 

10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function? 

11. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service? 

12. What is meant by the holiness of the sanctuary, and in what 
did this consist ? 

§ 81. Literature to be Consulted. 

James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) ; 
EWALD, The Antiquities of Israel {■^,6. ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. I17-30; KuENEN, 
The Religion of Israel {i%6g f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 96-100, 241 f., 256-60, 305 
{., 328 £f., 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp. 
250-58 ; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the 
Time of Jesus Christ (1874); Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. 
"Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel {i^^^), 
pp. 1 7-5 1; Conder, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1 882, pp. 75 
£f.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel {isi ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 79 

"Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, " The High Place," The Hebrew Student, 1883, pp. 
225-34 ; CONDER, Heth and Moab (iSS^), chaps, vii, viii ; Perrot and Chipiez, //is- 
toryofArtin Phoenicia (1885) ; E. C. RoBlNS, The Temple of Solomon (1887); Conder, 
Syrian Stone Lore (iSSy), pp. 42 f., 70; Kittel, History of the I/edrews {iSSS-gz, 
transl. 1 895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " Robertson, £arly Religion 
of Israel (iSSg), see Index, s. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W. 
R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith, 
Religion of the Semites {isi ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 140-212; H. Sully, The Tem- 
ple of EzekieVs Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in fudcea 
(1890); J. Pollard, "On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria," 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; DuFF, Old Testa- 
ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s. z/. " Altar," "Place," " Sanctuary," etc.; 
Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle," 
"Temple," etc.; C. ^kiaa^g, Jerusalem's Temple (1892); Montefiore, i^^//^2'o« of 
the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " J. Strong, 
"The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History 
of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the 
Monuments, Vols. I-HI (1895-1901), see Index, s. v. " Temple ; " Driver, Deuteron- 
omy (1895), pp. xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic Institutions (1896), 
pp. 31-90; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (1896), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann, 
Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; H. B. Greene, " Hebrew 
Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. Buchler, "The Fore- 
Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly 
Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran 
Church Review, 1898, pp. 27 1-93 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (iSgS), 
see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " G. C. M. Douglas, " Ezekiel's Temple," Expository 
Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff,, 420 ff., 468 ff., 515-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar" 
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, "Remarks on the Taber- 
nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1898, pp. 241-3; 
Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 164-71; 
A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), pp. 246 ff,; W. E. 
Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); W. C. Allen, article "High 
Place" in Hastings' Z>zV/w«arj/ of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The 
Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ?" 
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8 ; Th. G. Soares, " Ezekiel's Temple," 
Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 93-103 ; S. I. CuRTiss, "The High Place and 
Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1900, pp. 351-5 ; L. 
W. Batten, " The Sanctuary at Shiloh," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX 
(1900), pp. 29-33; G. Allen, "Sacred Stones," Fortnightly Review, January, 1900; 
Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, 
January, 1900; John Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: Studies in the Priesthood and 
the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901); G. F. MoORE, article " High Place" in Encyclo- 
pcedia Biblica (1901). 

Bahr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhdltnisses zur 
hebrdischen Architektur i^berhauptilS^S); Merz, article " Tempel " in Real-Encyklopddie 
fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (ist ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer- 
Rinck, Z>^^ Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht voni Tempel (1858); Kamphausen, "Bemer- 
kungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. 97-121 ; 



80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," 
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Popper, Der biblische Bericht 
iiber die StiftshUtte (1862); Riggenbach, " Die mosaische Stiftshiitte : Selbstanzeige," 
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1863, pp. 361-8 ; H. Pierson, De heilige steenen 
in Israel {1S64 ff.) ; H. Oort, " De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor 
Jerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1867, pp. 285-306; DuHM, Z>eV Theologie der 
Propheten (1875), pp. 3 1 2-20; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 143-269; KtJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollen- 
dungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge, 
Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber 
Salomos Bauten, I Ko. 5-7," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1883, 
pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der 
alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740; 
Schurer, article " Tempel Salome's" in Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alter- 
thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographie du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel [iSS^f i.), Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 £f., 
113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, I^este des arabischen Heidenthums (1887), pp. 42-60, 
98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos u. s. w. (1887); O. 
Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. ScHOUTEN, De 
tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de 
Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restitues d^apr^s Ezechiel et le livre des Rois 
(1889); F. V. Andrian, Z><?r Hohenkult asiatischer und europdischer Volker (1891); 
Piepenbring, " Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Vhis- 
toire des religions. Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. DE Broglie, "La loi de 
I'unite de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congrh scientifique international 
des catholigues, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Reli- 
gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- 
geschichte {ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie 
(1894), pp. 243-9, 364-404; NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), 
Vol.11, pp. 1-86; ViiiAM.h.'^'H, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {iSgs), see 
Indexes, v.*" Tempel ;^^ H. A. Fo'ELS, Ze sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jearim (1895); S. A. 
Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) ; E. Schure, Sanctuaires d''Orient, 
£gypte, Grhe, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult- 
stdtten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen 
Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furvi&re a 
I'epoque romaine," VUniversite catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92; Basset, "Les sanctu- 
aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900 ; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves 
(1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde 
nach dem babylonischen Exil, Vol. II (1901), pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen 
des salomonischen Tempels, l Ko. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift jUr die alttestamentliche Wis- 
senschaft. Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. BuDDE, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung 
der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901). 

§ 82. Supplementary Topics. 

I. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms 15:7; 
11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26 :6-8, 12 ; 27 14-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 29 19; 
36:8; 40 : 9; 42 : 4; 43:3 f-; 46: 4; 48: I f., 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ; 
55: 14; 61 : 4; 63 :2; 65: I, 4; 66: 13; 68 : 15-17, 24, 29 ; 69:9; 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1 

73:17; 74:2ff.; 76:2; 77:^3; 78:54,58,60,68!.; 79:1-13; 
84; 87; 92:13; 93:5; 96:6-8; 99:9; 100:4; I02:i3ff.; 114:2; 
122; 125 : I ; 127:1 (?); 132 ; 134; 135 : i £.; 138 : 2 ; and formulate 
a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the 
idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter. 

2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc- 
ryphal books, e. g., I Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : i, 68 ; 6 : 7, 18, 26, 51, 54 ; 
7:33-38 ; 9:54-57 ; 10:41-44; II : 37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48; 16:20; 
2 Mace. I : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : i ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3:2, 12, 14 ff.; 
4:14; 5:15-21; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23; 
14 : 4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem 
to. have been made. 

3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New 
Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2, 6; 9: 35; 12: 4-6, 9 ; 13 : 54 ; 
21:12-14,23; 23 : 16-22, 35; 24 : I ff., 15 ; 26:61; 27:5; Mark 

1 : 21-29; 3:1; 5 : 22, 35 ff.; 6 : 2 ff.; 11 : 15 ff., 27; 12 : 41 ff.; 13 : i 
ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke i : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38, 
44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 :45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f. 
John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24; 7: 14, 28 ; 1 1 : 55 ff.; 16:2; Acts i : 13 f. 

2 : I ff., 46 ; 3 : I ff.; 4 : I ; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : I f., 20 ; 13:14 f-, 43 ; 14:1 
16 : 16 ; 17:1 ff., 10, 17; 18 : 4, 8, 19 ; 19 : 8 f.; 20 : 7 ff.; 21 : 26 ff. 
22 : 19 ; 25 : 8 ; 28 : 30 f.; i Cor. 8:10; 16:19; Eph. 2 : 19-22 ; i 
Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. i ; Heb. 8 : i f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f.; 
12:18 ff.; i3:ioff.; Rev. 8:3; 9:13; ii:if., 19; 14:15, 18; 
15:5-8; 21:3,22; and formulate the points of difference which 
appear. 

4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting {a) 
its relation to the temple, {b) the different character of its services as 
compared with those of the temple, {c) its origin in response to a great 
religious need, and {d) its historical significance as the forerunner of 
the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1; 
20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35 ; 6 : i ff.; Acts 
9 : I ff.; 13 : 13 ff.; 14 : i ; 17:1, etc.s 

5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan 

5 See article " Synagogue " in Encyclopcedia Britannica ; E. H. Plumptre, article 
"Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v. 
" Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div. 
II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp. 
430-50 ; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Time of Christ; Kent, A History 
of the Jewish People (see Index). 



82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength 
or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem ? What was the 
attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple ? See, e. g., Ezra, chap. 
4; Neh. 2:18-20; 4:1-23; 6:1-19; 13:28; John 4:19-24 {cf. §45). 

6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to 
the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a 
temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is 
regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers. 

7. Make a special study of Hezekiah's reform (see 2 Kings 18 : 3-7, 
22; cf. 2 Chron. 29:3 — 31:20; 32:12), considering (i) the question 
concerning the age of the narratives; (2) the preparation for such a 
reform prior to Hezekiah's time; (3) the suggestion that the reform 
followed, rather than preceded, Sennacherib's invasion ; (4) the prob- 
able relation of Isaiah to the reform movement; (5) the influence of 
such an attempt in preparing the way for a later reform. 

See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 363 ; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 
Vol. I. pp. 607 f., 623; Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. II, p. 518 ; Cheyne, 
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, p. 365 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Israel, p. 23 ; Stade, Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 8 ff.; VI, pp. 170 £f.; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews,Yo\. II, pp. 355 ff.; Cheyne, 
article "Hezekiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; McClymont, article "Heze- 
kiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica; and the commentaries on Kings by Kittel, Benzinger, 
and Skinner. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§ 83. Sacrifice in the Eariy Period, that is, as described in {a) the 
Covenant Code, {p) the historical material of J and E, {c) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and {d) the pre- 
Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). 

1. Kinds of offerings.' 

Gen. 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 8 : 20 f.; 10 : 24 ff.; 18:12; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ; 
Judg. 6 : 26 ; i Sam. 10:8; 21:6; i Kings 3:4; 12: 26-33 ; 2 Kings 
16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4 : 13 ; 9:4; 11:2. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Gen. 4:3; 15 : 9 £f.; 8 : 20 £f.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 20 : 24; 
Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; iSam. 7:9^; 
21:6; I Kings 8 : 5. 

3. Manner of sacrifice. 

Exod. 34: 25 ; 23 : 18 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; i Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam. 
6: 13; I Kings 18 : 30-38 ; 2 Kings 16:12 £. 

4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 

Gen. 46:1^/ Exod. 23:15^/ 34:20c/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg. 
6:18-24; 13:16-19; I Sam. i:3£f.; 6:15; 7:9f.; 11:15; 20:29; 
2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-25; i Kings 8:5; 18 : 30-38. 

5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal. 

Gen. 18 : 1-8 ; 31 : 54 ; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 : 6<^, 7 ; 
I Sam. I : 3 ff.; 9:12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20: 29. 

6. Human sacrifice was not unknown. 
Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?). 

7. Sacrifice to idols was common. 

Exod. 32:6; I Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:i7(?); 10:19, 24 f.; 
Hos. 4:13; II : 2. 

8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice. 
I Sam. 2 : 13-17. 

* The following are J-references : Gen, 4:3; 8 : 20 £f.; 18 : 1-8 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 
8:20 f.; 34 : 20c, 25 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 (?); Deut. 27 : tb, 7 (?). The following are 
E-references : Gen.iSigff.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31 = 54; 46:1*,- E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.; 
18 :I2; 20:24; 23: 15^, 18; 24: 5; 32 : 6 ; Numb. 22 : 40. 

83 



84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. 

Amos 4:4^.; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13.19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4; 
11:2; 13:2 ; Isa. I : 11-13 ; 34 : 6. 

§ 84. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ? 
What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the 
meaning of the burnt-offering ? of the peace-offering ? of the pass- 
over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period 
was equivalent to a social meal ; (d) the eating of meat was a sacrificial 
act ; {c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act. 

2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the 
flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine, 
meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds 
of material ? 

3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a 
sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the 
morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice 
may be noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23: 1-4, 
14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and 
what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on Gilgal, and note the 
bearing of the details on the subject. 

4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri- 
fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What 
was sought for in the act ? 

5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the 
religious element ? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the 
meal ? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ? 
What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy 
which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice ? 

6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, 
and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the 
custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong 
ideas did it rest upon ? 

7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to 
idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that 
of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to 
have been expected ? 

8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of 
support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice. 

9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85 

attitude toward sacrifice; and consider whether the prophet was 
opposing (a) the act of sacrifice itself; or (d) a cold, indifferent, hypo- 
critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed 
to offer sacrifice; or (c) the feeling, which had become quite general, 
that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all 
that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con- 
stituted religion. 

§85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the 
early period, embodying the material presented above. 

§ 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws 
of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter- 
onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings. 

1. Kinds of offerings.* 

Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 11, 18. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 ff.; i Sam. 2 : 27. 

3. Manner of offering. 

Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18 ; i Sam. 2 : 27. 

4. Occasion and purpose of offerings. 
Deut. 16 : 2-4; I Sam. 3:14; Jer. 33 : 11. 

5. Social element in sacrifice. 
Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; i Kings 3:15. 

6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms. 
Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28. 

7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice. 
Deut. 18:3,4; I Sam. 2 : 28, 36. 

8. Human sacrifice still existed. 
Mic. 6 : 6-8. 

9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. 

Zeph. I : 7, 8 ; Mic. 6 :6-8 ; Jer. 6 :2o ; 7 : 21 f., 29; 17 :26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18 ; 
46:10 ; Isa. 43:23 f. 

§87. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 ip) the kinds of offerings mentioned 
(including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit 
of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in 
Mic. 6 : 6-8 {a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own 
child), {b) the purpose of sacrifice, and (c) the requirement of Jehovah. 

2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages 
"^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy. 



86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in 
the earlier age. 

3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ; 
(d) the roasting of the flesh ; (c) the eating of the flesh ; (d) the employ- 
ment of men ''to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice." 

4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of 
Israel out of Egypt, (a) in relation to time (was there not a spring 
feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; (3) in 
relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in 
relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to 
purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an 
expression of gratitude for some favor already received ? 

5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does 
the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute 
a sacrifice ? 

6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani- 
mals and the act of sacrifice ? Wherein does the distinction consist? 
What led to the making of the distinction ? What, naturally, will 
follow as a result of making this distinction ? 

7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which 
are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance; 
(d) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine, 
and meal ; and {c) the ground for these gifts. 

8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still 
used for sacrifice ? 

9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac- 
rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude. 

§88. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain, 
in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period 
in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period. 

§89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel. 

1. Kinds of offerings. 

Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 
Ezek. 44 : 15 ; 46 :4-7. 

3. Manner of sacrifice. 

Ezek. 40:38-43; 44:11, 15 ; 46:4-15. 24. 

4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 
Ezek. 46:4-15 ; 43:18-27; 45:13-25. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 87 

5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet. 
Ezek. 39 : i 7-20 ; 46 : 24. 

6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols. 
Ezek. 20:28-31. 

7. Human sacrifice. 
Ezek. 16:20 f.; 23 :39. 

8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice. 
Ezek. 42 : 13. 

§90. Constructive Work. — Consider the various allusions to sacri- 
fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a 
statement covering (a) the points of resemblance and difference in 
comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; (d) the more 
formal and official character with which sacrifice seems to be invested 
by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided 
for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; {d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the 
earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24). 

§91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in (^) the 
laws of the Levitical Code, {I?) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the 
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 

1. Kinds of offerings.^ 

Lev. 7:1,11; 6 : 9, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: io<5, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ; 
Numb. 15 -19 ; 5 : 11-31- 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Lev. I : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2:1,4 f-. 7. "» 13-15 ; 3 : i. 3 f. 6 f-. 9 f •. 12, 14 f .» 
16 f.; 5:6f., II ; 6: 1-7, 15, i9f.; 7 : 3-5, 11 ff.; 9: 1-4; 12: 6-8 ; 14: 10, 
49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb., 
chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 10(^-14. 

3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred. 
Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f.; 9 : 19-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc. 

4. Manner of sacrifice. 

Lev. I : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : I f., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 f., 12 ; 
6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ,7:1 ff., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; 9: 8-11, 
12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16:3-28:24:5-9; Numb. 5:11-31; 
19 : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 1; 19 : 5-8. 

5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 

Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 1, 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5: 1-6, 13-15, 17-19 ; 6 : 1-7, 30 ; 
9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31. 53 ; 15 : 13-15. 28-30 ; 23 : 10(^-21 ; Numb. 
5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10. 

3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. The priests' share of the sacrifice. 

Lev. 2 : 3, lo ; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : 12- 
20 ; Numb. 5 : 5-10 ; Exod. 29:27-32 ; Numb. 18 : 8-20. 

7. All slaughter is sacrificial. 
Lev. 17: 1-9. 

8. Few references to idolatrous sacrifices. 
Lev. 17:7. 

9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice. 

Isa. 19: 21; 56:7; 66: 3 ; Mai. i : 7-9 ; 3 : 3-5 ; Joel 1:9, 13 ; 2 : 14;. 
Dan. 9 : 27. 

10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories. 

I Chron. 15 :26 ; 16: i ; 21 : 26 £f.; 29 : 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5 ; 2:4; 5:6; 
7 : 4 £f.; 8 : I2f.; 11 : 16 ; 13 : 11; 15:11; 24 : 14 ; 29:20-36; 30: isff.; 
3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2£f.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19; Neh. 
io:33f.; 12:43^- 

11. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice. 
Lev. 4:35; chap. 16; 9:3; io:i6ff.; Numb. 15:22-31; 19:1-9. 

§92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various 
topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be 
determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any 
case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as 
well as their religious, bearing : 

1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering, 
peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved 
in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ- 
ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible, 
in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and 
determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider, 
now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : (a) Are they, 
in each case, voluntary or obligatory? (d) Are they, in each case, 
self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible 
bases for classification. 

2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac- 
rifice, noting, (a) in reference to animal offerings: (i) the particular 
animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of 
the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether 
the distinction between clean and unclean animals '^ was in any way 
connected with the choice for sacrifice ; (<5) in reference to vegetable 

* Cf. Lev., chap. 11 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. SiMCOX, article " Glean and 
Unclean," §8, in Encyclopcedia Biblica, and chap. x. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89 

offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized; (2) the reason or 
reasons for this selection ; (c) the character of offerings worthy of being 
accepted ; (</) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables, 
<f. g., one's hair,s one's virginity,^ one's blood ;^ (e) objects connected 
more or less closely with sacrifice, e. g., wine, incense, salt, oil, blood, 
fat, leaven, honey; (/) the meaning or significance of each kind of 
material as employed in sacrifice. 

3. Note the particularly important emphasis placed upon the use of 
the blood and fat, and consider what was involved in this, and the 
principle underlying it. 

4. Study, in detail, the method of sacrifice, viz., {a) the ceremonial 
of the animal sacrifice which included (1) the circumstances connected 
with the presentation of the victim, e. g., the laying on of hands, the 
time, the place, (2) the slaughter, (3) the use made of the blood, (4) 
the flaying of the animal and its dissection, (5) the burning, (6) the 
washing, (7) the waving and heaving, (8) the sacrificial meal; (d) the 
ceremonial, in similar fashion, of the vegetable offering ; (c) the cere- 
monial of the drink-offering; (d) the distinction involved between 
burning the offering and eating it ; [e) the distinction involved 
between consuming all and only a portion. 

5. Study the occasion and purpose of sacrifice as it appears in the 
later period, considering (a) how far it is 7iational, i. e., offered for the 
nation as a whole (cf. Exod. 29:38-42; Numb. 28:9 — 29:6); {b) 
how far it is official, i. e., offered for certain officers of the state, the 
priest, or the ruler {cf. Numb. 4: 22-26); [c) how far it is individual, 
i. e., offered for the ordinary man as an individual ; {d) how far it 
is festal, i. e., associated with feasts, e. g., the Passover, the Feast of 
Harvest ; (e) how far it is extraordinary, i. e., connected with special 
rather than regularly recurring events ; (/) how far it is local or 
centralized, i. e., offered where one chanced to be, or at some place 
selected from all other places, and authorized as the proper and only 
proper place ; {g) how far it is, in this period, a gift or offering, rather 
than the payment of a demand or of something due. 

6. Put together the various elements which made up the priest's 

sSee Lev. 19:27; 21:5; cf. Jer. 7:29, and \V. R. Smith, Religion of the 
Semites, 2d ed., pp. 323-35. 

^Cf I Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:47; 2 Kings 23:7; Nowack, Hebrdische 
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 132 f.; W. R. SMITH, Religion of the Semites, pp. 454 ff.; 
Frazer, Golden Bough, Vol. II, pp. 225 ff. 

' Cf. Ps. 50 : 13 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (see Index, s. v. "Blood"); 
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant. 



90 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

due, and consider whether (a) upon the whole he was properly repaid 
for his services, (d) he deserved any longer to be classed with the 
widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy. 

7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is 
sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the 
appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those 
who do not recognize this fact. 

8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse. 

9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice ; are 
they hostile ? or indifferent ? 

10. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with 
which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) how large a place sacrifice is 
given ; (d) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the 
act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; (c) 
the significance of this in connection with the greater importance 
attached to sacrifice in this later period. 

11. Consider (a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or 
implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of sm; {d) 
the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the 
conception of God which had come to exist in this period ; (c) the 
suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the 
appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there 
should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub- 
jectively and spiritually the same idea. 

§93. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will present 
in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later 
and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including {a) the 
chief points of practice, and {b) the essential principles involved. 

§ 94. Literature to be Consulted. 

J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry, 
articles "Sacrifice," "Sin-Offering," " Meat-Offering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863); Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel {^di ed. 1866, 
transl. 1876), pp. 23-111; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp. 
1-416; Part II, pp. 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; Y^\5Y.^^^, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 
1874 f.). Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp. 
261-323; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" Sayce, 
"On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions of the Society of Biblical 
^rr/^^<?/<7^y. Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31 ; E. Park, " On the Question of the Divine 
Institution of Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural 
Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement {i?)']']) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Israel {i^'j^), pp. 52-82 ; R. COLLINS, " An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com- 
mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv; Alfred Cave. "The Levitical Sacrifices 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 9 1 

Literally Considered," in The Pulpit Commentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxxi; 
H.C.Trumbull, The Blood Covenant {^\'i%S^,^^^ Index, s. z/. " Sacrifice ;" Leighton, 
The Jewish Altar {1SS6); A. Hovey, " Shekkar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings," 
Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. CROSBY, "The Sacrifices," Old Testament 
Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice" in Encyclopedia Britannica 
(1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 
77-82; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Sacri- 
fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1888, pp. 146-50; 
W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Human 
Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xxx; 
KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;" 
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-340 ; 
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {i^^g), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. A. 
NoRDELL, " Old Testament Word-Studies : 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testament 
Student, Vol. VHI (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. Rodwell, The Mosaic Sacrifices in 
Lev. /-///(1890); SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- 
fice;" Duff, Old Testament Theology (1891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and H; 
Th. E. SchmauCK, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Review, 1891, pp. 
127-63; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. I: Human Sacrifices," 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-53; 
MoNTEFiORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristram, 
"Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Times, 1894, No. i ; H. C. 
Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life {i^()^), s&t Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" A. 
Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K. Cheyne, 
" The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Scapegoat," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta- 
mentliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- ^53-6; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonement 
Money," The Thinker, 1895 ; A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice," 
Bibliotheca Sacra, 1895, PP« 342-6; Menzies, History oj Religion (1895), see IndeXy 
s. V. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant {iSgt), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- 
fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. 
"Offerings;" Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. 
"Sacrifices;" A. Fairbanks, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems," 
The New World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering and Sacrifice: An 
Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development (1899); Trumbull, The 
Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religion 
and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 1900 ; 
S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible 
(1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," i^(?/i?rw(f</ 
Church Review, ]a.nua.ry, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice 
in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; 
Davis, "The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900; Edward Day, The Social 
Life of the Hebrews (1901), pp. 39-46 ; McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monu- 
ments (1895-1901), §§ 738, 1006 f., 1014 ; D. McKenzie, Exposition of Old Testament 
Sacrifice (1901). 

V. Thalhofer, Z>?V unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus (1848); Heng- 
STENBERG, Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1852); RiEHM, " Ueber das Schuldopfer," 
TheoL Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121 ; S. W. RiNCK, "Ueber das Schuldop- 
fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855, pp. 369-8 1; A. Stoeckl, Das Opfer, nach 



92 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

seinem Wesen und seiner Geschichte (i860); Oehler, revised by von Orelli, article 
"Opferkultus des A. T '?>,''' Real- Encyklopddie fur protestantische Theol.und Kirche 
(2d ed., 1883); Menant, "Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chaldeens," Gazette 
archeologigue, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's 
Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884) ; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen 
Heidenthums {!%%"]), pp. 110-28; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel {i^^'] f.),Vol. I, 
pp. 492-8; Vol. II, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammeltestamentlige 
Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp. 281-3 (1889); Friedr. Nitzsch, Die Idee 
und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C. PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culte 
et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Vhistoire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86; 
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et V expiation (1891); A. Schmoller, "Das 
Wesen der Siihne in der alttestl. Opferthora," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1891, pp. 
205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), 
pp. 138-45; NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol, II, pp. 203- 
75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 431-64 ; P. Schanz, "Der Opfer- 
begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, 1894, PP- 179-222; G. A. Sl^GKiST , V idee du sacrifice 
dans I A. 7". (1894) ; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestl. Theologie {i^gs),^^^ Index, s. v. 
" Opfer ; " Stade, " Die Eiferopf erthora," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestl. Wissenschafi, 1 895, 
pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli- 
gion (1896) ; Marti, Geschichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-31 ; Levi, 
La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahnidnas (1898); G. de Alviella, "La theorie du 
sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Vuniversite de Bruxelles, 
April, 1898; M. Lambert, " Le mot 1^'^,'" Journal asiatique,\o\. XI (1898), pp. 
326 f.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestamentlichen Opferidee (1899); A. 
LoiSY, "Notes sur la Gen^se. VI: Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22:1-19," Revue de 
Vhistoire et de la litterature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. VOLZ, "Die Handauf- 
legungbeim Opfer," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1901 ; Lefebure, 
" Le sacrifice humain d'apr^s les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill, 
No. 2; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, (1856), Vol. II, pp. 142-55. 

§95. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter, 
€. g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5, 8-14, 23; 51 : 16 f., 19; 54:6; 
56 : 12 ; 66 : 13, 15 ; 96 : 8 ; 106 : 28, 37 f.; 107 : 22 ; 116 : 17 ; 118 : 27 ; 
and consider (a) the attitude in general of these song-writers ; {b) how- 
far they have spiritualized the subject; {c) the relationship between 
the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms. 

2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5; 
22 : 27; 42 : 8f.; Prov. 7 : 14; 15 '• 8 ; 21:27; Eccles. 9 : 2. 

3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees — e. g., 1 Mace. 
5 : 54; 7 :33; 1 1 : 34 ; 12:11; 2 Mace, i : 8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :9ff.; 
3 : 3, 6, 32; 4: 14; 6:7; 9 : 16 ; 12 :43 ; 13: 23; 14 : 31 —determine 
the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period, 
and note any changes that present themselves. 

4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 93 

the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5 : 1-3 ; 7 : 26 f.; 9:6; 10 : 18, 26; 11:17; 
13 : 10-16. 

5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of the 
various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., hHT ,; HTOJ ; llbiS? ; W^')2bw ; 

T T It :'t t - T T t: I v v v ° t : t : 

• T 

C/. S. R. Driver, article " Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionary 
of the Bible. 

6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference as 
compared with the usages of the Hebrews. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopcedia Britannica. 

7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians, 
the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif- 
ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews. 

See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," 
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia 
and Assyria {Index, s. v. " Sacrifice "); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; L. W. 
King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and 
Assyrians, pp. 245-9. 

8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopcedia Britannica ; A. F. ScOT, 
Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development. 

9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical. 

10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether these 
teachings {a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service, 
or (3) pointed to something beyond and above. 

11. (Consider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in the 
Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§ 96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the 
Covenant Code; (d) the historical material of J and E; (c) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and [d) the 
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note i).* 

1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread.'' 
Exod. 34:18; 23:15; 13:3-10. 

2. The Feast of Weeks. 
Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : i6a. 

3. The Feast of Tabernacles. 

Exod. 34:22<^/ 23:i6<5/ i Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27; 
21 : 19 ff. 

4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by 
law. 

Exod. 34 : 23 1; 23 : 14-17 ; i Kings 9 : 25 ; i Sam. i : 3. 

5. The feasts were connected with agriculture. 
Exod. 23: 15 f.; 34-22 ; Judg. 21 . 19 £f. 

6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character. 
Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 £f.; i Sam. i : 3, 7, 13 ff. 

7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine. 
Exod. 10:9; Judg. II : 40 (?) ; i Sam. i : 3, 7 ; 2:19. 

8. The Passover. 

Exod. 34:25; 12:21-27. 

9. The Feast of the New Moon. 

Hos. 5 :7 (?); I Sam. 20:5 f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23. 

10. Special feasts were held, ^. ^. .• the Feast of Sheep-Shearing; 
the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter. 

I Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 1 3 : 23 ; Judg. 1 1 : 40. 

11. Idolatrous feasts. 

Exod. 32:5; I Kings 1 2 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 : 20. 

12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts. 

Amos 5:21; 8 : 10 ; Hos. 2:11; 5:7(?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. i :i3 f. 

* The following references are from J : Exod. 34 : 18-25 ; 12:21-27; 13:3-10; 
10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 ; 32 : 5. 

* References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

94 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 95 

§97. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread, 
(a) the duration ; (d) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor- 
respond?); {c) the nature and significance of " unleavened bread;" (d) 
the meaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;" (e) 
the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point 
of connection; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different 
things, viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened 
Bread. 

2. Consider, in connection with the F«ast of Weeks, (a) other 
names for the same feast, viz.. Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, cf. Acts 
2:1; 20 : 16; I Cor. 16 : 8); {b) the duration {cf. Deut. 16: 9-12) ; {c) 
the date ; {d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain 
harvest; {e) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old 
Testament of its observance (but cf. 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New 
Testament passages indicated above). 

3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, (a) other 
names, viz.. Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; {b) the duration (cf 
Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; (c) the date, late in the autumn ; (d) the connection 
of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine; 
(e) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/) 
the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the 
three great feasts (i Sam. i : i ff.; i Kings 12:32; 6:38); (g) the 
fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan- 
ites (Judg. 9 : 27); (/i) the important religious significance involved in 
the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of 
its fruits. 

4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, (a) 
the number; (b) the distribution of these throughout the year; (c) the 
class of persons who were expected to be present; (d) the meaning of 
the phrase ** appear before the Lord ; " (e) the guarantee given of safety 
upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in 
Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ? 

5. To what extent were these feasts of an agricultural character, that 
is, connected with agricultural pursuits, e. g., harvest, ingathering of 
fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with 
certain seasons of the year? What was the usual time for harvest in 
Palestine ? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what 
feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at 
Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics 



96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts ? 
Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date ? 
Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in 
which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the 
ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among 
people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural 
life ? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have 
observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before 
settling in Canaan ? 

6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy? 
Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments 
of a feast ? How far did the idea that the deity was sharing in the 
festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the 
eating, etc., contribute to this end ? Was not the very purpose a 
joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as 
would interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any 
feeling of the need of an atonement ? 

7. (i) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social 
element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which 
many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily 
involve a pilgrimage ? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like 
Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi- 
cal influence of such pilgrimages? 

8. Consider (i) whether the Passover, although forming a part of 
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that 
feast; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not _ pastoral (that is, of 
nomadic origin), rather than agricultural; (3) the meaning of the name 
"Passover; "3 (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the 
evidence in Exod. 7:16; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring 
festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses ; (6) 
the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in 
which those who partook united themselves more closely and came 
into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security; 
(7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time (a) with the 
historical event of the exodus, and {b) with the Feast of Mazzoth. 

3C/. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri- 
tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfestes ; NowACK, Hebrdische 
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 ff.; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 470 ff.; 
RiEDEL, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32; 
Stade, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of nOS," Journal of Biblical 
Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97 

9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi- 
cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (i) its wide 
observance among Semitic peoples;"^ (2) its association with ancient 
family sacrifices; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible 
use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by 
the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity. 

10. Consider the Feast of Sheep-Shearing : (i) Was not this, like 
the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural 
feast ? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed 
elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country ? (4) 
How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5) 
Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in 
general, did it celebrate? Consider the mourning-feast in connec- 
tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual 
virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history.^ 

11. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those 
which became authorized, as in the case of (i) Aaron and the calf, (2) 
Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal. 

12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these 
feasts, and their influence : (i) To what extent did the feasts consti- 
tute the religion of the people ? (2) How far would men postpone 
religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store 
did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts ? Would the threat of 
their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts 
serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the 
people ? to encourage the spirit of unity ? (5) To what extent would 
these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ? 
(6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole 
{cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the 
custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say 
of the religious value of the feasts ? To what did he make objection ? 
{a) the lack of heart manifested ? {b) or the fact that they were held 
in honor of other gods ? or {c) the fact that the people thought the 
holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and 
neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ? 

* Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v. 
Moon," "Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in 
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, See also Hommel, Aufsdtze und Abhandlungen 
(1900), pp. 149-65. 

5 Q^. Goldziher, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade, Ge- 
schichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. MoORE, A Critical and Exegetical 
Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f. 



98 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will 
present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier 
period, as follows: (i) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5) 
characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance. 

§ 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described (a) in 
the laws of Deuteronomy, (d) in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings, and (c) by the prophets of the Deutero- 
nomic period.^ 

1. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined. 
Deut. 16 : 1-8. 

2. Feast of Weeks. 
Deut. 16 : 9-12. 

3. Feast of Tabernacles. 
Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f. 

4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary. 
Deut. 16: 5-7, II, 16 ; 31:11. 

5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts. 
Deut. 16 : 16 f . 

6. Feasts are still occasions of joy. 

Deut. 12 : 8 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f .; 24 : 1 1 ; Isa. 9:3. 

7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis. 
Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16 : i. 

8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. 

Nah. 1:15; Jer. 51 : 39 ; Lam. i : 4, 1 5 ; 2 : 6 f., 22. 

9. Josiah's Passover. 
2 Kings 23 : 21-23. 

§ 100. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread, 
consider (i) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed 
together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the 
connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15 : 19 ff.); (4) 
the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ; 
(6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec- 
tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which 
this feast shall be observed ; (9) the change in ritual and conception 
which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for 
this; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two 
feasts. 

^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book 
of Deuteronomy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99 

2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed 
in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven 
weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be 
invited to the feast ; (4) the place ; (5) the joyous character ; (6) the 
historical reminiscence suggested. 

3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (i) the name and 
its origin {cf. i Sam. 1:8); (2) the time (no particular day designated); 
(3) the persons who are to participate ; (4) the duration ; (5) the place ; 
(6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character. 

4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the 
place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell 
there;" is it (i) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in 
another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several 
places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time, 
viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would 
follow such centralization ; e. g.: (a) Would the feast thus transferred 
to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? (b) If a 
particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected 
with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred 
at widely separated dates ? (e) Would the historical be likely to sup- 
plant the natural interpretation of the feast? (d) Would the original 
ritual also lose its significance ? (e) Could the firstlings actually be 
taken to Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family 
take the entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (g) Would he 
sell his own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut. 
14:24-26)? Would this affect commerce ? (/i) Could a man, in this 
case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and 
friends with him, as in the village or country? (/) Would not this lead 
to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of 
the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less 
individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ? 

5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it 
possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people 
could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three 
times in a year ? Would this have the effect of depriving these people 
of religious privileges? 

6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their 
joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the 
new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and family, lost 
as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ? 



Ct 



100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

7. Although feasts are still nominally on an agricultural basis 
{cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be 
possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view 
of (i) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time 
being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at 
different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his- 
torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com- 
memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the 
purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ? 

8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do 
with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in 
view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may 
we understand to have been their general position on the subject of 
these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an 
essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them 
modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined 
with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in 
the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that 
the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison 
with a pure and simple life ? 

9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and 
his people in 621 B. C, (i) what attitude was taken by the king 
toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time 
(^/. Deut. 23 14-20)? (2) What was the command issued as to the 
observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into 
disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the 
character of the Passover observed on this occasion ? 

§101. Constructive Work. — Write a statement covering three points : 
(i) the feasts which now no longer seem to be observed, and the rea- 
sons ; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts 
transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these 
modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the 
adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts) 
to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a 
better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with 
the changes which had now come about ? 

§102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17, 18-21, 
22-25 ; 46 : I, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (i) whether, in general, Ezekiel has 
much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies 
along other lines, or because the development has already reached its 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS lOI 

highest point ? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what ?) that the Deutero- 
nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite 
dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig- 
nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to 
that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be 
found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character, (6) Is the 
centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel 
proposes ? 

§ 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the 
laws of the Levitical code, {d) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the 
priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.^ 

1. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread. 

Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 '. 9 '• 1-14 ; Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2 
Chron. 8:13; 30 : 13-27 ; .35 : 1-19 ; Ezra 6: 19-22. 

2. Feast of Weeks. 

Lev. 23 : 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13. 

3. Feast of Tabernacles. 

Lev. 23 : 34-36, 39-44 ; Numb. 29 : 12-38 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 3 ff.; 7 : 8-10; 
8 : 13; Ezra 3 : 4; Neh. 8 : 13-18. 

4. Feast of the New Moon. 

Numb. 28: 11-15; I Chron. 23 :3i ; 2 Chron. 8:13; 31 : 3; Ezra 3:5; 
Neh. 10:33. 

5. Feast of Trumpets. 

Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10. 

6. Definite dates are fixed. 

Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther 9:21. 

7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost. 
Lev. 23 : 42 f . 

8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted. 
Zech. 14 : 16-19 ; i Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19. 

9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts. 
Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9. 

10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. 
Zech. 14 : 16-19; Joel 1:14; 2:15. 

11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts. 

Lev. 23: 19; chap. 16; Numb. 28 : 15, 22, 30; 29:5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25, 
28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10. 

12. Day of Atonement. 

Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-1 1 ; Exod. 30: 10. 
7 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical code of laws. 



102 ^ PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

13. Feast of Purim. 

Esther 8:17; 9 : 15-32. 

§ 104. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of 
iht Passover and Unleavened Bread, note (i) the new phrases, "set 
feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness 
with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work;" (4) 
the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering 
which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering ; 
(5) that in time {cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that 
the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that 
Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared 
them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover 
(Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2 
Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's 
times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover; 
(10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character; 
(^12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of 
voluntary gifts. 

2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (i) that the same 
general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened 
Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a 
feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer 
considered a nature feast. 

3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (i) the same 
points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts, 
viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each 
day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's 
observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark 
(2 Chron. 5:3ff.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con- 
nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in 
connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3 : 4); (5) 
the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8 : 13-18). 

4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of 
the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (i) that a regular 
ceremonial is instituted ; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in 
connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger 
emphasis. 

5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Trumpets, (1) its connec- 
tion with the sabbatical system;^ (2) the provisions given for its 

^See chap. ix. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3 

observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets 
with various feasts. 

6. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that now the 
exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact, 
as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations. 

7. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that the agri- 
cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case 
of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment), 
a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted ; (3) the signifi- 
cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the 
general character of the feasts. 

8. Consider (i) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in 
the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken 
for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa- 
lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets 
and historians of the period. 

9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (i) whether the largest 
emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice ; (2) whether, in fact, 
with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac- 
tically ignored ; (3) the influence of this upon the people ; (4) the 
explanation of it. 

10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets 
toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre- 
ciation, or hostility? Why has this change of attitude come about? 
Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new 
policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's 
religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really 
priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ? 
Had prophecy now died ? 

11. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi- 
nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea? that, therefore, 
confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the 
fact, how is it to be explained ? 

12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to 
answer the following questions : (i) Was it observed in the early or 
middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period ? 
(2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement 
(45: 18-20) ? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration 
of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7 : 35 ; 8:19? (4) Or with 
the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in 



104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance ? 
Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of 
the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What 
evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What 
is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your 
souls" (Lev. 16: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the 
idea of sin involved in this institution ? 

13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (i) its origin and 
occasion ; (2) its date ; (3) the question of its connection {a) with a 
Persian feast, {B) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the 
name ; (5) the method of observance.^ 

§ 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show 
the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between 
the usage of the middle period and that of the later period. 

§ 106. Literature to Be Consulted. 

A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix 
\\\ — The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 
5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; Kuenen, Religion 
of Israel {i^tg f., transl, 1874), Vol. I, pp. 242-5, 262-7 ; II, pp. 28-30, 89-94, 253 f., 
271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, transl. 1883), 
§§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services 
(1874), pp. 144-300 ; W. R. Smith, article " Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread," 
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875) > Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel 
(1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish 
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 240, 269; Id¥.m, Prophets of Israel (ist ed. 
1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus 
the Messiah (ist ed. 1883), see Index, s. v. "Dedication," "Feasts," "Passover," etc.; 
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses 
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885); E. Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the 
Time of Christ {iSSS, transl. 1890), passim; Piepenbring, Theology of the Old Tes- 
tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli- 
gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty, 
Travels in Arabia Deserta,No\. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. Smith, i^^/z- 
gion of the Semites (isted. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8; Ro^R-ERTSO-ii, Early Religion 
of Israel {i8Sg), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Bo'scawen, "The 

9 Cf Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.; 
ZlMM^E'R.'ii, Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De 
Lagarde, Purim — Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of 
the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIX, pp. 280; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir 
die Kunde des Morgenlandes,\o\. VI, p. 70 ; C. H. Toy, "Esther as a Babylonian 
Goddess," A^<?w World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal 
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO5 

Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol. IV (1890), pp. 
34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article " Festivals," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {2d ed. 1893) ; 
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant {i2>g2))i see Index, s, v. "Feasting;" idem. 
Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem. The Threshold 
Covenant (1896), pp. 203-12, 266; H. B. Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands, 
(1894), pp. 69-86; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaology, Vol. 
XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E. Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of 
Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic 
Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Critically Illustrated," American 
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV (1898), pp. 182-94 {cf. Revue 
des etudes juives,Yo\.'KXl\ , pp. 256-71); Morris ]astrov^ ,]r.. Religion of Babylonia 
and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of 
T\0^,'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger 
AND T. K. Cheyne, article " Day of Atonement," ^«0/<:/(3/^i/m Biblica (iSgg); W. 
W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic {\%gg); Warren, 
" Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly 
Statement, October, 1900; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical 
Review, November, 1900; Frazer, "The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," /^?r/- 
nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 
II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "New Moon," Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopcedia Biblica 
(1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Cambridge 
Companion to the Bible, pp. 411-17 ; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. II, 
pp. 648 f, ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see IndeXy 
s. V. " Feasts." 

J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed.. 1686), III, Diss, viii ; J. 
Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, "Ueber die urspriingliche Bedeu- 
tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," TUbinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I, 
40-124; lDEM,"Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus," 
ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alten Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp. 
492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die dlteren jiidischen Festeii^-^^); H. Ewald, in Gottingischer 
Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. Ewald, in Jahrbiicher 
der biblischen Wissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p. 223; IX, pp. 257 f.; F. Hitzig, 
Ostern und Pfingsten (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. II, 
pp. 664 ff.; H. Ewald, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fiir 
die kunde des Morgenlandes,No\. Ill (1840), pp. 410-41; H. Hupfeld, De primi- 
tiva et vera festorum apud Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65); 
Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier {i^^b); 
W. SCHULTZ, "Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Yes^Q,'' Deutsche Zeit- 
schrift fiir christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben, 1857, pp. 23-30; JOH. 
Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch aufs neue kritisch untersucht (1858); 
DiLLMANN, article "Feste," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. Oort, "De groote 
Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\.X {i^'jb), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in 
Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i £f. ; Idym., Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch- 
Gesetze,Wo\.l (iSjS) •,lD'EM,m Magazin fUr die Wissenschaft des fudenthums, 1879, PP* 
99 ff. ; Franz Delitzsch, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches 
Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff.; KuENEN, in Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\, 



I06 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

XVII (1883), pp. 207-12 ; MiJLLER, Kriiischer Versuch uber den Ursprung des Pesack- 
Mazzothfestes (1883); Adler, "Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und 
seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883) 
pp. 178-85 ; Orelli, articles " Passah," " Pfingstfest," Realencyklopddie f-iir protestan- 
tische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,' 
Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Riehm, article "Feste,' 
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Orelj.i, article "Ver- 
sohnungstag," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche {2^ ed. 1885)^ 
De Lagarde, " Purim ; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II 
(1887), pp. 378 £f.; IV, p. 147, note i; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen 'Heidentums 
{=Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. Stad^e,, Geschichte des 
Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, "Das 
Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fUr die alttestament- 
liche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie 
(1889), pp. 121-3; H. Zimmern, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes," 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1 89 1, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuck 
der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. 
"Feste;" W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 
138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans^ 
" Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologicy 
Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f . ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyrio- 
logie," Revue semitique, Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche 
Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Feste," "Passah;" K. Marti, Geschichte der 
israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v.^^Y^^i^,^'' " Pesach," " Laubhiittenfest," 
etc.; F. Buhl, " Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie fiir 
protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Mazzoth Fest 
(1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel (1900); Mossa, " Bedeutung des Passahfestes," 
Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No. 2; Riedel, "Miscellen 5. 6.: HOS, HDISn tli^it!!," 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B. 
Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle : HOS ," ibid., pp. 333-7; C. 
Brockelmann, "Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidis, " Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen- 
Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 £f. 

§107. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast 
days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the 
so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship.'" 

2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees, 
viz.: I Mace, i : 39, 45; 4:52-59; 7 : 49 ; 10^34; 13 -50-52; 2 Mace. 
I : 9, 18; 2:9, 16; 6: 6f.; 7:42; 8 : 33 ; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36 ; 
and make such a statement as the material thus examined will warrant. 

3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa- 
ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14 : i f., 12, 14, 16; 

^° Cf Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms — A New English Translation, p. 
210; Kirkpatrick, The Psalms, Books II, ///("Cambridge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur- 
ray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms, "W o\. I, 
pp.86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10/ 

15:6; Luke 2:4if.; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4 = 45; 
5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; ii:55f.; 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29; 
18:28,39; 19:14; I Cor. 5 : 7 ; Heb. 11:28. 

4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to 
designate the feasts, viz.: HCSS , jH, JnlS^niT jH , T^pJl jTi; jH 

rf c^^^ ; niDcn r^n ; isnn ; t\']tq -^ D-^nis ; etc. 

5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts 
among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points 
of similarity and difference." 

6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing 
especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity 
existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew 
feasts, e. g., the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con- 
nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag- 
muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of 
the Feast of Purim." 

7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to (a) the Arabic feasts 
or pilgrimages, (d) the Canaanite agricultural feasts.'^ 

8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into 
and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element 
involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and 
that in a city life. 

9. Consider (i) the conception of God which had come to be 
supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., holiness; (2) the relation of 
this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same 
period; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel- 
opment of the feast system. 

" See W. W. Fowler, TAe Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, Fair- 
banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, 'i^owtmhtr, 1900; Frazer, 
" The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fortnightly Review, October and Novem- 
ber, 1900; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. 
" Festivals." 

" Cy; especially Morris ]astro\w,]r., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, ■=>&& 
Index, s. v. " Festivals." 

»3 See Snouck Hurgronje, Bet Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Travels in Arabia 
Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums ; and other literature cited 
in §106. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED 
INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 1 08. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period, 

/. e., as described in {a) the Covenant Code, {B) the historical material 
of J and E, {c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings, and {d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, 
note i).* 

1. The law of the sabbath. ^ 
Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-1 1 ; 23 : 12. 

2. Customs connected with the sabbath. 
2 Kings 4:23; II : 5, 7, 9. 

3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. 
Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13. 

4. The law of the sabbatical year. 
Exod. 23 : lof.; 21 : 2-1 1. 

§ 109. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the 
sabbath, (i) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men- 
tioned in the decalogue ; (2) the first word, remember, and compare 
the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any 
sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for"? 
(4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the 
third, second, and first ? Does this consist in its having originally 
had to do with the deity, as do the preceding ? (5) Are there other 
variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod., 
chap. 20, and Deut, chap. 5 ? What are the variations ? How shall 
we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that 
Exod. 20 : 9-11 and Deut. 5 : 13-15 are later additions made at differ- 
ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words, 

^ The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23 : 10-12 ; 21 : 2-1 1 ; 
the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21. 

'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

108 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I OQ 

''Observe (or remember) thesabbath day to keep it holy "P^ (6) What 
was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said 
of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the 
Hebrews in Egypt? (8) Was it originally connected with the new 
moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it 
was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, /. e., a day 
on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more 
easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor- 
able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not 
doing certain things ?*• (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be 
understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the 
word observe? (11) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed 
upon the idea of cessation from labor ? 

2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the 
sabbath, consider (i) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab- 
bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came 
in or went out on the sabbath; (3) other early (?) customs, codified 
in later times, ^.^., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16 : 29), kindling 
no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15 : 32- 
36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4)80 far a.s tht early 
records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa- 
tion from labor and of humanitarian motive ? 

3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath 
made by the prophets ? (i) What are the people desiring to make of 
the sabbath, according to Amos ? What restraint is evidently upon 
them ? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the 
same category with days of rejoicing and mirth? (3) What is the 
significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. i : i3)of the sabbath 
with the new moon ? 

4. Consider (i) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew 
servants after six years of labor ; did this imply a regularly recurring 
seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any- 
thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing 
that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and 
the beasts ; does the regulation say that all land was to lie fallow in the 

3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ; 
DiLLMANN, ^;cc»^Mj-, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; Driver, Introduction, 
etc., p. 34; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 181-7; Marti, Ge- 
schichte der israelitischen Religion; et al. 

< Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52. 



no PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The 
motives underlying these regulations. 

§ 1 10. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will indicate 
the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab- 
bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period. 

§111. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period, 
/. <?., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic 
prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel 
and Kings.5 

1. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue. 
Deut. 5 : 12-15. 

2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. 

Jer. 17 : 19-27; Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6; 58: 13, 14 ; 66 : 23 ; Lam. 1:7; 2:6, 

3. The law of the sabbatical year. 
Deut. 15 : 1-18; 31 : 10. 

4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah. 
Jer, 34:8-17. 

§ 1 1 2. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath 
law, including (i) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's 
former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants, 
(4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv- 
erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the 
sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to 
be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect 
upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at 
Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and 
emphasize the humanitarian idea ? 

2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to 
the observance of the sabbath, consider (i) the small number of such 
references ; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said 
by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., {a) as to bur- 
dens, (^) as to work, {c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of 
the people (Jer. 17 :23); (4) the promises and threats in reference to 
its observance (Jer. 17 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath 
in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56:2, 4, 6); 
(6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the 
sabbath a delight (Isdi. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath 

s References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- 
omy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I I 

as a time, like the new moon, for worship (Isa. 66 : 23); (8) the forget- 
ting of the sabbath in the exile. 

3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above 
(§§108, 4; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (i) the 
year of release of debts : (a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; (d) 
does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become 
outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ; 
or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that 
year? (c) the reward promised; {d) the motive for this law; (<f) does 
it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a 
fixed seventh year? (g) would it encourage or discourage business? 
(2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, noting the 
slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron- 
omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land (cf. Exod. 
23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab- 
ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years. 

4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves 
in Jeremiah's time. 

§113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the 
nature of the changes which are being made, and the general trend. 
§ 114. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel. 

1. The purpose of the sabbath. 
Ezek. 20 : 12, 20. 

2. The sabbath a /lo/y day. 
Ezek. 44 : 24. 

3. General profanation of the sabbath. 
Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38. 

4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath. 
Ezek. 45 : i? ; 46 : 1-5, 12. 

5. The year of liberty. 
Ezek. 46 : 17. 

§ 115. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the 
sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes 
(Ezek. 20: Ei), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had 
been treated by Israel. 

2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy 
the sabbath ? 



112 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

3. What was meant by profaning and hiding the eyes from the 
sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally 
do that which brought it into disrepute ? 

4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's 
scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? - Con- 
sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon. 

5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year 
of release or liberty. 

§ 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and 
indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen- 
eral place in prophecy. 

§ 117. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, /. e., as 
described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly 
prophets, and (c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, 
Chronicles. 

1. The law of the sabbath.^ 

Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 : 1-3- 

2. Special days observed as sabbaths. 

Lev. 23 : 7 1, 24-32, 39 ; 16 : 29-31 ; Numb. 28 : 11-15, 18, 25 f. ; 29 j i, 7, 
12, 35. 

3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath. 
Gen. 2 : 2 f . ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31 : 12 f., 17. 

4. Special offerings made on the sabbath. 

Lev. 23 138; Numb. 28:9!; i Chron. 23 :3i;2Chron. 2:4;8:i3;3i:3; 
Neh. 10: 33. 

5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath. 

Lev. 19 : jfi, 30a,- 26 : 2a; Exod. 16 : 22-30 ; 31 : 14-16 ; 35 : 2 ; Numb, 
15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10 : 31 ; 13 : 15-22. 

6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time. 

Lev. 23 : 15 f.; 24 : 8 ; i Chron. 9 ; 32 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8. 

7. Sabbath made known on Sinai. 
Neh. 9:14. 

8. Law of the sabbatical year. 
Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; 26 : 34, 35. 

9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land. 
Lev. 26 : 34 f. ; 2 Chron. 36 : 2 1 . 

10. Law of year of jubilee. 

Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4. 

^References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3 

§118. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider (i) the form of the sabbath observance which must 
have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu- 
alistic ; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this 
period, and the distinctive character which it must have given the 
Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol- 
emn rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the 
purpose of the sabbath {cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser- 
vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The 
reason assigned for its establishment {cf. Exod. 20 : 11)? (5) Why 
should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular ? 

2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz., 
first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and 
eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement. 

3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance : (i) 
because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection 
between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as 
Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods? 
(2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this 
mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not 
observe it ? 

4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on 
the sabbath. 

5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be 
enforced : (i) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother, 
and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed 
for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on 
the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a 
double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna 
on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal- 
ings on the sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of 
those violating the law. 

6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh 
day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts. 

7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbath was 
(first ?) made known on Sinai. 

8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year: (i) Is all 
agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the 
fruit and grain that grows of itself? (3) Was Palestine a land subject 
to severe famines? If so, could such a law have been observed? 



114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri- 
culturists, i. e., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would 
the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any 
evidence that it was observed before the exile ? or that it was not {cf. 
Lev. 26 : 34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause 
great distress (i Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there 
between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the 
year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ 111,3; 112,3)? 

9. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a 
period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved. 

10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (i) the meaning of the 
name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh 
sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of 
rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year ? (3) the procedure; 
was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation 
concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration 
of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses 
in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern- 
ing Hebrew and non-Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to 
Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh- 
ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur- 
ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the 
law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12) 
What led to the choice of the fiftieth year? (13) Is there any evidence 
that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year 
of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law? 
(16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ? 

§ 119. Constructive Work. 

Prepare a statement including {a) an explanation of the fact that 
such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system 
in the legislation and thought of this period; {b) an enumeration of 
the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this 
period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and {c) a brief study of 
the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history. 

§ 120. Literature to be Consulted. 

Jennings, /.fww/^ Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; Ewald, History of Israel {ist ed. 
1843-59, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 £.; II, pp. 209 f.; V, pp. 166 f., 343, 400, 416; 
Idem, Antiquities of Israel {1^$^, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on 
Exodus (1855), in loc. 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture," 
i860, 3d ed. 1866); GiLFlLLAN, On the Sabbath (1862); KuRTZ, Sacrificial Worship 
of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp. 342 £f.; JOHNSTONE, Sunday and the 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II5 

Sabbath (1863); R. S. Poole, article "Chronology," see section on "Sabbatical and 
Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox, 
Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 
1869, transl. 1892), see Index^ s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;" 
KuENEN, The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286 f.; II, pp. 
278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), PP- 164 f.; Oehler, Theology of 
the Old Testament (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce, 
Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the 
History of Israel {i^'j^), pp. 112-20 ; J. Fenton, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6, 
29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc.," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1880, pp. 153-78, 
355-89,419-39, 661-85; 1881, pp. 254-85,524-52, SCHRADER, Cuneiform Inscrip- 
tions and the Old Testament {2^ ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff.; W. R. 
Smith, Prophets of Israel {ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown, 
"The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700; 
DiLLMANN, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), on Gen., chap, i; 
SCHURER, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ {1SS6, transl. 1891), 
Div. II, Vol. II, pp. 96-105 ; W. R. Smith, articles "Jubilee," " Sabbath," Encyclopcedia 
Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (" Hibbert Lectures," 
1887), pp. 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366; 
II, pp. 225, 306; McClintock AND STRONG, Cyclopcedia of Biblical, Theological and 
Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical 
Year ; " Jensen, " The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath," 
Sunday School Ziw^.?, January 16, 1892; Alice M. Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan 
New England {'J \.\i ed. 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article 
"Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Documents of 
the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," "Sabbath," etc.; Sayce, 
Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), pp. 74-7; Montefiore, 
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews {^'^Y{\\)\iexX. Lectures," 1 893), see Index, s. v. 
"Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Semitic Tradition (1894), pp. 23-35; Driver, A 
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. 174-81 ; Hirschfeld, 
" Remarks on the Etymology of SzXih^'Ca,''' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1 896, pp. 
354 f.; Abrahams, /.?ze/w>4 Life in the Middle Ages {i%g']), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath ; " 
Morris Jastrow, Jr., "The Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American 
Journal of Theology, Vol. II (i898),pp. 312-52 ; CHEYNE,/<?zf^V/ Religious Life after 
the Exile (1898), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus — 
a A'ew English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100 ; E. A. W. Budge, 
Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians : Life and 
Customs (1899), P- 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian, 
Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and 
Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa- 
teuch (1900), Vol. II, p. 112 ; T. F. Wright, " Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu- 
ary, 1900; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger, article "Jubilee," Encyclopcedia Biblica 
(1901); McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.; 
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish 
Quarterly Review, No\. XIII (1901), pp. 648-50 ; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the 
Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F, K'E'HT, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII 
(1901), pp. 344-8. 



Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

J. Spencer, Z>^ le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686); Wagenseil, De anno 
iubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H. Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et 
jubilaei (1708); Van der Hardt, De jubilaeo Mosis (1728); Reineccius, De origine 
jubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato 
ante leges Mosis existente (1748); Meyer, De temporibus et diebus Hebraeorum (1755), 
pp. 341-60; MiCHAELis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke, 
Novum systema chronologiae fundamentalis (1778); HuG, *' Ueber das mosaische 
Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fUr das Erzbisthum, I, i; De Wette, Lehrbuch der 
hebrdisch-jUdischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 211 f.; Baur, "Der 
hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tiibinger Zeit- 
schrift, 1832, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Alten Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, 
pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. WOLDE, De anno 
Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp. 
572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realwbrterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles 
"Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, 
Vol. I (1347), pp. 410 ff.; Brugsch, ibid.,Yo\.lll (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon, 
De la celebration du Dimanche {i?)^o)', Oschwald, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier (1850); 
LiEBETRUT, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saalschutz, Archdologie der 
Hebrder,Wo\, II (1856), pp. 224 £f., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und 
Jubelperiode (1857); Hupfeld, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis, Part III (1858); 
Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§77 
£f.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kubel, 
" Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo- 
logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in 
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Der babylonische Ursprung 
der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.; 
Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon^ 
Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), PP- 431 ff.; 
Klostermann, "ijber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; DiLLMANN, Die Biicher Exodus und 
Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die biblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 493 
ff.; 'LoTZ, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi {i^?>2,)', Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos,'* 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler, 
articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by von Orelli, in Real- 
encyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche {2d ed. 1884); RiEHM, articles 
"Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr " in ^lEnyCs Handworterbuch des biblischen 
Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 fO*» Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I 
(1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.; 
]-E^S'E.^, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,No\. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Z><?r 
Mischnatraktat ^^ Sabbath " herausgegeben und erkldrt {iSgo); Baentsch, Das Bundes- 
buch — £x. XX. 22 — XXIII. 33 (1892), pp. 115 f.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament- 
lichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see IndeXy s. v. "Sabbath" 
and "Jubeljahr;" NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, 
pp. 217, 333; II, pp. 138-44, 159-72; Benzinger, Hebraische Archdologie {i^g^),-p'p. 
201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; GUNKEL, Schopfung und Chaos (1895), pp. 13!, 1 14-17 ; Dill- 
mann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), stQ Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr" 
and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7 

"Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr;" Holzinger, Exodus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum 
Alien Testament^, see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus {Kurzer 
Hand-Comtnentar zum Allen Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat," 
(1901). 

See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees," 
chap. 50. 

§121. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its 
usage. 

2. Examine the following texts in which the root 1^3^ occurs, with 
a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22; 
Exod. 16:30; 12: 15; 23: 12; 34:21; Josh. 5 : 12; Isa. 13: 11; 14:5; 

30 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; Prov. 20 : 3. 

3. Study the passages in which the word "jiro^ (ordinarily trans- 
lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31; 
25:4; Exod. 16:23; 35:2; 31:15, with a view to determining its 
meaning. 

4. Examine the words bn^ ("jubilee"), n'lni ("liberty"). 

5. From an examination of i Mace, i : 39, 43, 45 ; 2 : 32-41 ; 
6 :49; 9:43^-; to'-34; 2 Mace. 5:24-26; 6 : 6, 1 1 ; 12 : 38; 15: 1-5, 
prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times. 

6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the 
Psalms {cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not? 

7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa- 
ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament 
writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : i f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24 : 20 ; 28 : i ; 
Mark 1:21; 2 : 23 f., 27 f.; 3 : 2, 4 ; 6:2; 15 : 42 ; 16:1; Luke 4 : 16, 

31 ; 6 : I ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : i, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f., 
16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; 9 : 14, 16 ; 19 : 31 ; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44; 
15:21; 18:4; 21:27; 28 : 14 ; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. i : 10. 

8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among 
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is 
any possible connection between these days and the sabbath. ^ 

9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians, 

"^ Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poesies au Papyrus Harris, No. joo, pp. 38 f. 41 ; 
Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Vannie egyptienne ; WIEDEMANN, 
Religion of the Egyptians, pp. 263 f . ; Jastrow, "Original Character of the Hebrew 
Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, No\.\\,f^. ■},lO,noX.% 1 16; BuDGE, Egyptian 
Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff. 
(in English translation = 7%<? Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. COHEN, 
"Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Zfz/jg-<r2>/( Milwaukee, Wis.), 
1 88 1, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f,; Kuenen, Religion of Israel., 



Il8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether 
there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.^ 

10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show 
(a) its origin, (d) its various stages of development, (c) its social bear- 
ings, (d) its religious significance, {e) its idealism, (/) its practical 
character. 

11. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new- 
moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf. 
§§97 (9)» 104 (4). 

12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number 
seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in 
the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew 
verb "to swear, take oath" (literally = " to seven oneself" or "be sev- 
ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc. 

13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the 
"Lord's day" of the New Testament, {a) as to the day observed, {b) as 
to the spirit characteristic of the observance ? 

Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 ff.; 
Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271; 
NOWACK, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141 f. 

* Cf. Morris Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American 
Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life 
and Customs, p. 245 ; Schrader, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53» 
Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 
1882, pp. 688-700; C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents, \o\, II, pp. 40 f. 
(See also §120.) 



CHAPTER X. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED 

COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, /. e., as described 
in {a) the Covenant Code ; {b) the historical material of J and E ; (c) 
the pre-Deuteronoinic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and 
{d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).* 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Gen. 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26. 

2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient. 
Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Gen. 35 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30 : 22. 

4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean. 
Amos 7 : 17 ; Hos. 9:3. 

5. Forbidden food. 

Exod. 23 : 19^/ 34 : 26^/ 22 : 31.* 

6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises. 
Gen. 35:2; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; i Sam. 20 : 26 ; Judg. 13:4, 7, 14; 
Isa. 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14. 

7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean. 
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. 1:16; 6:5; 30 : 22. 

§ 123. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Consider (i) the meaning of "every shepherd is an abomination 
unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement ; (2) the 
meaning of "sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians;" (3) whether 
that which is called an "abomination " may have been something sacred 
or holy, /. e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether, 
as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association 
between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns ;^ 

* The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 
8 : 26 ; 34 : 26(J. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : l\b; 23 : \^b. 

^ These references are from the Covenant Code. 

■iCf. Nun (Fish), Exod. 33 = " ; Terah (Ibex), Gen. ii :27; Leah (Wild Cow), 
Gen. 29:16; and see R. G, Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical 
World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff. 

• 119 



120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(5) whether there are not cases in which animals are regarded as 
having superhuman power; '^ (6) whether the second commandment 
does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship ; 
(7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of 
the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent 
(Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of 
totemism} 

2. Note (i) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made 
in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words 
unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not 
the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in 
connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind " 
was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point 
of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be 
closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and 
called taboo.^ 

3. Consider the source of uncleanness in the case of (i) Jacob's 
household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven 
images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will {a) classify 
these sources and {J?) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case. 

4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his 
own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests. 

5. Note the prohibition of eating (i) a kid boiled in its mother's 
milk,' (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the 
usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi- 
tions concerning the eating of food ? 

6. Explain (i) the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19:10; (2) the 
reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (i Sam. 20:26); (3) 
the connection of "eating no unclean thing" with the Nazirite (Judg. 
13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the 
putting off of shoes (Exod. 3 : 5); (6) the use of the vestments (2 
Kings 10: 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6 : 14). 

7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean 

4 Cf. Gen. 3 : i ff.; Numb. 21:8 £.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f. 

5 See especially J. G. Frazer, Totemism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites 
(2d ed.), pp. 125 £f. ; and other literature cited in § 134. 

^ See especially J. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," EncyclopcEdia Britannica ; W. R. 
Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 ££., 446 ff. 

7 See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23:19^, and W. R. Smith, Religion of 
the Semites (2d ed.), p. 221. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 121 

accepted by the prophets? Consider, for example, (i) the view held 
concerning foreign lands ; (2) the exhortation to wash and become 
clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6:5); (4) 
the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30 : 22). 

§124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a 
general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the 
earliest period. 

§125. The Usages and Laws Concerning Clean and Unclean in the 
Middle Period, /'. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the 
Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings.^ 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jer. 36:10; cf.i Kings 18:4 and 
Ezek. 8 : 7-12. 

2. Forbidden food. 

Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Deut. 21 : 22f.; 23 : 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 ; 7 : 25 f.; Jer. 16:18; Lam. 4 : 14 f. 

4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises. 
Deut. 12: 15 ; 15 : 21 1; 26 :i3f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11. 

5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean. 

Jer. 2 :7, 23 ; 13: 27 ; 16: 18 ; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11. 

§ 126. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of 
animals, e. g., Shaphan (= Rock Badger), Achbor (= Mouse). What is 
the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days 
of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and 
that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to 
the exile ? 

2. Consider (i) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and 
the ground on which it rests; (2) whether in this case the principle of 
taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat- 
ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten, 
and their general characteristics; (5) the animals which might not be 
eaten, and their general characteristics ; (6) the general principles 
which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection 
arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds 
is ten; {g) whether this distinction was something objective imposed 

^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose {a) to train the 
people in obedience, or {b) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or {c) to 
teach important religious truth by an allegorical method, or {d) to 
separate the Israelites from other nations, or {e) to prevent the wor- 
ship of certain animals ?); or, rather, something subjective, of gradual 
growth, and expressive of certain instinctive feelings (for example, {a) 
that of aversion, or {b) appreciation of utility or beauty, or (^) expe- 
rience of the use of this or that kind of flesh) ; or whether the origin 
is to be connected with some form or other of totemism ; (lo) the 
absence of any list of clean and unclean animals in the Covenant Code, 
and the significance of so fully developed a list in the Deuteronomic 
Code. 

3. Consider (i) some of the sources of uncleanness as cited, e. g., 
the body of a man who has been hanged; issues of the body; graven 
images; "carcasses of detestable things;" contagion; and (2) the 
method suggested for purification. 

4. Note the necessity of cleanness on the part of one who is to 
engage in a religious exercise, and in this connection (i) the fact that 
the flesh of certain animals may be eaten alike by those who are clean 
and by those who are unclean ; (2) the prohibition of the lame, the 
blind, or the blemished in sacrifice ; (3) the synonymous use of the 
words " uncircumcised " and "unclean."^ 

5. Study the prophetic attitude toward infringement of the regu- 
lations concerning "clean and unclean," and the punishment which 
is to follow this infringement. How far do the prophets of this period 
seem to have shared the ideas of their times on this subject ? Does 
their attitude relate to the minute particulars of the system, or to the 
general question of loyalty or obedience ? 

§ 127. Constructive Work. — Compare, in general, the minuteness 
of the regulations of this period in contrast with those of the earlier 
period ; characterize these regulations as a whole ; and consider whether 
they are (i) really new usages which had their origin after the formu- 
lation of the book of the covenant, or (2) old usages, for the most 
part, which are now codified for the first time ; (3) in the former case, 
whence may they be supposed to have come? (4) in the latter case, 
to what influence are we to ascribe their codification ? 

§ 128. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in Ezekiel. 

I. Traces of totemism. 

Ezek. 8 :7-i2. 
9 For a further study of the subject of circumcision see §§ 164 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 23 

2. Forbidden foods. 
Ezek. 4 : I4» 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Ezek. 4:14; 22:24; 36:17.25,29,33; 37:23; 39:12,14,16,24; 
43:7-9; 44:25. 

4. Instruction concerning clean and unclean is an important part 
of the priestly function. 

Ezek. 22:26; 44 :23. 

5. Everything connected with religion must be clean. 
Ezek. 22:26; 43:20-26; 44:25; 46:19-24. 

6. Methods of purification. 

Ezek. 36: 25 ; 43: 18-26; 44 : 26 f. 

§129. Questions and Suggestions. — Ezekiel's intermediate position 
and the peculiar situation to which his work is addressed make the 
material of his sermons especially interesting. 

1. Consider the significance of the fact (i) that seventy elders are 
present, and that the idols {i. e., likenesses of reptiles and abominable 
beasts) are being worshiped ; (2) that the presiding priest was the head 
of one of the animal clans (viz., the Cony). Does this indicate that 
even in this late period animal-worship prevails ? 

2. Note Ezekiel's contention concerning his own cleanness, and 
the formulation of his idea of uncleanness. 

3. Consider the representations made by Ezekiel of uncleanness, 
including that of the land, and note the various occasions which give 
rise to uncleanness. 

4. Observe the part which the priest is to play in giving instruc- 
tion upon the subject of cleanness and uncleanness. 

5. (i) Note that *' clean" now means "holy," "unclean" means 
"common;" to fail to make the proper distinction is to "profane" 
Jehovah ; and (2) consider how this later and more developed idea has 
arisen out of the earlier. (3) Observe, also, that every act connected 
with a religious observance must be ceremonially clean. (4) Consider 
the bearing on this idea of the establishment of boiling-houses. 

6. Consider the methods by which purification from uncleanness 
might be secured. 

§ 130. Constructive Work. — Formulate the new phases and details 
of the idea of "clean and unclean " which appear in Ezekiel, and dis- 
cuss the relation of all this to Ezekiel's idea of God. 

§131. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in the 
Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code,, 



124 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

{b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, 
Nehemiah, Chronicles.'"* 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Isa. 65 : 4 f.; 66 : 17 ; Lev. 19 : 28. 

2. Forbidden food. 

Lev. 17 : 10-16 ; 19 : 26 ; 11 : 1-23, 29 f., 41-47 ; 7 : 16-19 ; 19 • 7 I 
7 : 22-27 i 3 '• 14-17 ; Gen. g : 3 f.; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. i : 8. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Lev., chaps. 13 and 15 ; 20 : 20 f.; chap. 12 ; 18 : 19 ; 19 : 11-13 ; Numb. 

5 : 19, 28 ; 31 : 13 fE.; 35 : 33 f-; 5 : i-4 ; 2 Chron. 34 : 5 ; Ezra 9:11; 
Neh. 13:9, 30 ; Josh. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. i : 8. 

4. Uncleanness is contagious. 

Lev. 13:45!; 14:46!; 15:4-12, 19-23, 26 f.; 11:8, 24-28, 31-40; 
22:4-6; 5:2f.; 7:19; 6 : 10 f., 27-30 ; 19 : 7-16, 22 ; Hag. 2:10-14. 

5. Methods of purification. 

Lev., chaps. 14, 15 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 6 : 27 !; 16 : 19 ; Numb., chap. 19 ; 6 : 10-21 ; 
35:33 !; 8 : 1-21 ; 31 : 13-24. 

6. Everything connected with religious acts must be clean. 

Lev. 10:14; 27:11, 27; chap. 21; 22:1-25; 7 : i9(5'-2i ; 4:iif.; 

6 : 10 !; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : 11, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ; 
2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30 : 17-20 ; 29 : 15 f., 18 f.; Neh. 13 : 9, 22 ; Isa. 
66 : 20. 

7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the 
case of the Passover. 

2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14. 

8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean. 
Josh. 22:19; Ezra 9 : 1 1 ; Numb. 35 : 33 ! ; Zech. 13:1 f . 

9. All foreigners are unclean. 

Isa. 35:8; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30. 

10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of 
priestly functions. 

Lev. 10 : 10 !; 20 : 25 f. 

11. Traces of ancestor-worship. 
Lev. 19 : 28, 32. 

§132. Questions and Suggestions. 

I. Observe (i) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the 
sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did 
they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating 
the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues 

^° References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 12$ 

of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the 
old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these 
associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor- 
worship connected with totemism ? 

2. (i) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of 
food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean 
animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2, 
and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his 
companions. 

3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi- 
cated in the writings of this period. 

4. Consider (i) the various cases of uncleanness (<f. g., leprosy, 
plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or 
object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became 
unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its 
practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought 
into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ? 

5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for 
securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general 
with the methods of the middle period. 

6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean- 
ness : (i ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3) 
the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the 
ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days 
and other peoples; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere- 
monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of 
the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful- 
filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety 
and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ; 
(6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element 
found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7) 
the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which, 
indeed, permeated the ceremonial. 

7. Consider (i) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in 
the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the 
historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20. 

8. Observe that (i) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish 
land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has 
become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ? 

9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that 



126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by 
this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel- 
lenism. 

10. Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the 
priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con- 
sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in 
this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and 
(3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of 
their time and attention. 

11. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor- 
worship in (i) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is 
prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ? 

§133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show 
the new points which characterize the later period in the development 
of the idea of the clean and unclean. 

§ 1 34. Literature to be Consulted. 

Henry Hayman, articles "Unclean Meats" and " Uncleanness," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 
transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.; 
KuENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f-)> Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch, 
Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (i 871), pp. I-163; Oehler, Old Testament Theology 
(ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 142 f.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture 
(1871, 2d ed. 1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of 
Mankind {-^^A ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Sv-E^C^Vi, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I, 
p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, " Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the 
Arabs and in the Old Testament," /(7«r«a/ of Philology, \o\. IX (1880), pp. 75 ff.; 
Idem, Old Testament in the fewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem, 
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; ScHiJRER, A History of the 
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean 
and Unclean;" Joseph Jacobs, " Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?" 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaology, Vol. VIII ( 1 88 5 ), pp. 39-4 1 ; Andrew 
Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the 
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and 
Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce^ 
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the 
Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean," 
"Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G. 
Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature; 1887); Idem, articles 
"Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopcedia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article 
"Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 
1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A, B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden 
Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. W. Davies, "Bible 
Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25; 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 27 

McClintock and Strong's Cydopcedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias- 
tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and " Uncleanness " (1891); J. Lubbock, 
Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260 ; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 
55> 7i» I3i» 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy 
(1895), PP- 70» 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896), 
pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101; 
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals," 
etc.; J. Hastings, article "Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); 
Morris Ik^l^ov^,']^., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f.; 
J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1899; 
BuDGY., Egyptian Magic (iSgg), pp. 232 ff.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic 
Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A. 
SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); F.J. Schamberg, 
"The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XIH (1899), pp. 
162-9 ; Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib- 
lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note 113; McCurdy, article " Animal- 
Worship," /<fww>^ Encyclopcedia (1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901), 
pp. 257-69 ; R. G. Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol. 
XVin(i90i), pp. 176-84; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f. 

Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus {I'ji'j); Hebenstreit, De cura sanit. 
publ. (1783), Vol. n, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, Z)<? haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792); 
Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien 
und Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II, 
pp. 159 ff., 462 ff.; SoMMER, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz, 
Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed. 1846, 1848; 
2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19 
zur Tilgung der Todesunreinigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und 
Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traite de la Spedalskhed [Nor- 
wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847); 
Chvvolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. Wolff, 
"Die Lepra Arabum," in ViRCHOW's Archiv fUr path. Anatomie und Physiologie, 
Vol. XXVI (1861); S. Finaly, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der 
Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); ScHENKEL, article 
"Reinigkeit," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der 
biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), PP- 409-19 ; L. Kotelmann, Die Geburtshilfe bei 
den alten Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol. II (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus," 
Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-1 0; 
E. KoNiG, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und 
Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen," 
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Franz Delitzsch, 
article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage 
in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL 
(1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,Yo\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.; 
Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums {^ Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, 1st 
ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 176 ff.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber 
Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 34-40 



128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Altiestamentliche 
Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode {i?,g2), see Index, 
s. V. " Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N. 
MiJNCH, Die Zara^ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Aussatz, 
in Dermatologische Siudien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu," 
" Totemismus ;" H. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. Einsler, " Beobachtungen 
iiber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. 
XVI (1893), Heft 4 ; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, 
pp. 116 ff.; II, pp. 275-99; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152, 297, 
478-89; 'Di'LiM.A^^, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {i%g^), see Index, s. v, 
"Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der 
Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), 
pp. 41-4; K.y^iKt:i'KVi, Die jiidischen Speisegesetze {i?>()S); A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraath 
der hebrdischen Bibel P (ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic, Band 
144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No. i, col. 
10; BRRTnoL-KT, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896), 
see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen 
Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und 
Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. CoHN, Die Vorschrift betreffs 
die Zaraath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MtJLLER, SUdarabische Altertiimer im 
kunsthistorischen Museum zu Wien (1899); J- PiKLER AND F. SOMLo, Der Ursprung 
des Totemismj4s (1899); J. C. Matthes, "De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude 
Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy, 
Revue semitique. Vol. VII (1899), pp. 267 ff.; Gruneisen, Ahnenkultus und Urre- 
ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Medizin im Alten Testament (1901). 

See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim, 
Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. 11-15, especially those 
of DiLLMANN (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and 
White {^Polychrome Bible, 1898). 

§135. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the 
Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9; 
and summarize their teachings. 

2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and 
Proverbs; Job 11 : 4 ; 33 : 9 ; 17 -'g; 15 ^M ff-; 25 :4; 9 : 30 ; 37 : 21; 
36 : 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20:9; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize 
their teachings. 

3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the 
Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : i Mace, i : 37, 
46 ff., 54, 62 f.; 2 : 12; 3: 51 ; 4:38,43 f-» 4^ f., 54; 13: 47 U 2 Mace. 
I : 18, 33, 36; 2:8, 16, 19; 3:12; 4: 14; 5 : 27; 6:2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.; 
7:1 ff.; 10:3, 5; II :24; 12 :4o; 13:8; 14:36- 

4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers 
toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29 

of the principal allusions: Matt. 8 : 2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43; 
23 : 25-27; Mark 1:23, 26 f., 40-44; 3 = ii» 3°; 5^2, 8, 13; 6:7; 
7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4:33* 3^ ; 
9 :42; II :24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, 17 ; John 15:3; Acts 5: 16; 8:7 ; 
io:i4f., 28; ii:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; i Cor. 7:14; 
2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4 : 19 ; 5:3,5,26; 
Col. 3 : 5 ; I Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2:10; 
I John 1:7,9? 

5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., ^'np, 

niriD, nn, TjT, and"ninclean,"viz., K-2t^; 0^. nnriD , yplD, y^p'i, 
etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian 
and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and 
their exact significance in Hebrew literature. 

See especially Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II, 
pp. 1-40; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and \Jnc\ta.n,''' Encyclopcedia Biblica; Zim- 
MERN, Beitrage zur Assyriologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52; 
and the various lexicons. 

6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with 
clean and unclean and those connected with the ban -■=^^^^T^ . How 
may these be most satisfactorily explained ? 

See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban," Encyclopcedia Biblica. 

7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew *' clean and unclean " 
found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians 
against eating swine ; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments 
while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc- 
tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of 
widowhood; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all 
Semites ; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor- 
ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ? 

See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 441-56 ; W. Max 
MiJLLER, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopcedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo" 
and "Totemism," Encyclopcedia Britannica. 

8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and 
unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ? 
Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive 
feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases ? Does the pro- 
hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or 
non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a 
belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons? Can 



130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and 
unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ? 

See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the 
Jewish Church, pp. 365 f . and note ; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," 
Encyclopedia Biblica; NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp. 
116-19. 

9. Study the idea of "holiness " carefully in the light of the teach- 
ing concerning " clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally 
as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What 
is the history of the conception from this point of view ? 

10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and 
unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two 
ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso- 
ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later 
period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by 
a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel 
development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's 
history. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF 
WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 136. With prayer^ offered at times to secure deliverance from 
trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity 
and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica- 
tion, (i) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the 
granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for 
good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to 
destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath, 
which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the 
name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly 
connected with prayer, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression 
upon the deity, and thus securing favor; (6) consultation through 
oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were 
various means of ascertaining the divine will ; (7) practice in connec- 
tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which 
was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to 
secure knowledge of the divine will; (8) mourning customs, many of 
which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had 
power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro- 
pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act 
of dedication to the deity. 

It might be said that every act of worship was x^iWy prayer ; that 
is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer. 

§ ^37. Prayer. 

I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.* 

(a) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer. 

Gen. 18 : 22-33; 19:18-22; 20:7, 17(E); 25:21; 30 : 6, 17(E), 22 ; 
32:9-12; 35 :3(E); Exod. 3 : 7, 9 ; 5 : 22 f.; 8 :8, 12, 29 fif.; 9:28 £f.; 
io:i7ff.; 14:10, 15(E); 15:25; 17:4, 8-15 (E); 32:11-14; 32:30-32 
(E); Numb. 11: 1-3 (E), 10-15. 18; I2:I3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7 
(E); 23 : 10(E); Josh. 7 :6-9; 10:12-14; 24 :7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.; 
15 :i8; 16:28; I Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sam. 15:31 ; 24 : 10, 17; 2 Kings 
4:33; 6:17-20; 19:1,4,14-20. 

'All the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). 

131 



132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con- 
sider (i) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature 
of the petitions offered, e. g., requests for healing, for children, for 
relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance 
of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed ; 
(3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the 
basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which 
seem to be lacking in these cases ; (6) the indications of a primitive 
stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele- 
ments of prayer which are involved. 

(d) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer. 

Gen. 24 : 12-14 ; Exod. 33 : 7-1 i(E); 34:9; Numb. 10 : 35 f.; i Sam. 
8 :6, 18, 21; 12: 17 f.; 2 Sam. 7 : 18-29; i Kings 3 16-9; 18 : 24-40; 
2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-19. 

Study, from the same points of view, another class of prayers, in 
which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its 
guidance. 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.* 

Dent. 9 : 18-20, 25-29 ; 10 : 10 ; 26 : 15 ; 2 Kings 22 : 19; Jar. 3:21; 
10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 ; 15:15-18; 18 : 19-23; 20 : 12 ; 42 : 1-6; 
Judg. 3:9,15; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20 : 3 ; i Kings 8 : 22-6 1 . 

Consider (i) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the 
people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of 
confession, the naive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make 
of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose ; (2) the reasons given by the 
prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz., 
humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's 
prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and 
passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, 19-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints 
(15 : 15-18; 18 : 19-23 ; 20 : 12); (6) the request of the people that Jere- 
miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the 
crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress ; (8) the basis of Heze- 
kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's 
prayer (i Kings 8 : 20-53) ^^ ^^^ dedication of the temple (as expanded 
and presented by the Deuteronomic editor) — its form, its contents, its 
spirit, its presuppositions. 

= References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33 

3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions.^ 

Gen. 17: 18 ; Exod. 2 : 23 f.; 6:5; Numb. 16 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20 : 18, 
23 ; 21:2 f.; Ezra 8 : 21 fif.; 9 :5 — 10: i ; Neh. 1:4-11; 2:4; 4 : 4 f . 
4:9; 5: 19; 6:9, 14; 9:5-38 ; 13: M. 22, 30; Isa. 63: 7—64:12. 

Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under 
oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought of the prayer 
ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) ; (s) the various prayers 
recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the 
spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding 
periods ; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone 
consists. 

§ 138. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i) 
the general content of scriptural prayers ; (2) the peculiarities of form ; 
(3) the essential elements which make up such prayers; (4) any differ- 
ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods; 
(5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer (a) in the 
Psalms,'^ (3) in the wisdom literature,^ (c) in the apocryphal books,^ (d) 
in the New Testament,^ (e) among Assyro-Babylonians, Egyptians, etc.^ 

§ 139. Literature to be Consulted. 

Alfred Barry, article " Prayer," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 
2d ed. 1893); EwALD, Antiquities of Israel {-i^di ed. 1866, transl. 1876), se^ Index, s.v. 
"Prayer," etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 
1892), Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; H. Fox Talbot, "A Prayer and a Vision," Transac- 
tions of the Society of Biblical Arc hcBology, Vol. I (1872), pp. 346 ff., and Records of the 
Past, Vol. VII (1876), pp. 65 ff.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, 
s. V. " Prayer," "Oracles ; " H. Fox Talbot, "Assyrian Sacred Poetry," Records of the 
Past,Vo\. Ill (1874), pp. 1 3 1-8 ; A. II. Sayce, "Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after 
a Bad Dream," Records of the Past, Vol. IX (1877), pp. 149-52; B. T. A. Evetts, 
"An Assyrian Religious Text," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. 
X (1888), pp. 478 f.; D. G. Lyon, "Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers," Pro- 
ceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1 888, pp. xciii, xciv ; S. A. Strong, "A 
Prayer of Assurbanipal," Records of the Past, new series, Vol. VI (1892), pp. 102-6 ; 
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 505 f.; J. A. Craig, 
"Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), pp. 75-87 ; 
Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer ; " J, L. Nevius, Demon 
Possession and Allied Themes (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; Jastrow, Religion 

3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document. 
*See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69. 

sSee, e. g.. Job 22 127; 33 : 26 ; 41 : 3 ; 42:8, 10; Prov. 15 : 8; 28 : 9. 
<*See, e. g., i Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; 4:10, 30-34, 38-40 ; 5 = 31-34 ; 2 Mace. 1:5 f., 8. 
23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18:23; chap. 51. 
7 Matt. 6 : 9 ff.; 17:21; 21 : 13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17. 
'See literature cited in § 139. 



134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne, 
Jewish Religious Life after tAe Exile (iSgS), p. 25 1; Duff, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol, II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews 
(1901), pp. 215 f. 

Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; Riehm's Handwdrterbuch des 
biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 f.). Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische 
Gebete an den Sonnengott fUr Staat und konigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons 
und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamenilichen Religions- 
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrd- 
ische Archaologie (iSg^), pp. 462 a.; l>ioWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, 
Vol. II (1894), pp. 259 £f.; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie 
(1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, 
s. V. " Gebet," etc.; F. Buhl, article " Gebet im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie 
fUr prot. Theologie und Kirche, Vol. VI (1899). 

§ 140. The Vow. 

1. The earjy period: readings, questions, and suggestions. 

Gen. 1 4 : 2 1 £f. ; 28 : 20 ff. (E) ; 31:13 (E) ; Judg. 1 1 : 29 ff., 39 ; 1 3 : 4 f ., 
7,14; I Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 1 5 : 7 f . ; Numb. 21:1-3 (J) ; Isa. 
19: 21. 

Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob, 
Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with 
Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case ( i ) the implica- 
tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity; 
(2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow ; (3) the form 
of expression employed. 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 
Deut. 12:6, II, 17,26; 23: 18, 22 f.; Nah. 1:15; Jer. 44 :25. 

Examine the references to vows and note (i) the characteristics of 
each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free- 
will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4) 
the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow, 
wholly voluntary ; (6) the prophetic point of view. 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.' 

Numb. 6 : 1-21 ; 15:3,8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mai. 1:14; Jon. 1:16; 
2:9; Lev. 7 : 16 ; 27 : 2, 8 ; 22 : 18, 21, 23 ; 23 : 38. 

Examine the references cited and note (i) the special cases cited; 
(2) the increase in complexity of arrangement; (3) the details of the 
law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a 

9 References in bold-face type are from the P document. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 35 

woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between 
the vow and the free-will offering. 

§ 141. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which 
will take up (i) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2) 
the various kinds of motives which are seen to have exerted influence; 
(3) the words employed and their significance ; (4) the relationship of 
the vow to the free-will offering; (5) the relation to the oath; (6) the 
modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference 
in principle between vows of devotion and vows of abstinence; (8) the 
place of the Nazirite order'" in Old Testament history; (9) the making 
of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the 
prophets ; (11) the representations in the Psalms ;" (12) the representa- 
tions in wisdom literature;'^ (13) the representations in apocryphal 
literature;''* (14) the representations in the New Testament ;'5 (15) the 
relation to prayer and sacrifice. 

§ 142. Literature to be Consulted. 

H. W. Phillott, article "Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, 
op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 191 £., 371 £.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow," 
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875) ; Idem, ReL of Sem., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza- 
rite," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74; G. F. Moore, Judges ("International Criti- 
cal Commentary," 1895), PP- 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and 
Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), PP- 152 f.; Cheyne, cp. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray, 
"The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton, 
article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III. 

Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; Schrader, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's 
Bibel-Lexikon; Dillmann, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article 
" Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie {2d ed.); Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des 
Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 64S ff.; Maybaum, Die 
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums (1883) pp. 147-53; ^l^a^, -Hand- 
wdrterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhamtnedanische 
Studien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;" 
NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann," 
"Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl, 
article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed.. Vol. VI. 

"See article " Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III. 

"See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. 
Ill, p. 117 ; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f. 

"See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56:12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11; 
116:14, 18; 132:2. 

»3See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7:14; 20 : 25 ; 31:2. 

*^See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9 : 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 : 22. 

*sSee, <f. g.. Acts 18: 18; 2i:23f. 



136 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 143. Blessings and Cursings. 

1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions/* 

Gen. 3:14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 £.; 12 : 3; 27:27-29, 35 (E), 39f. (E); 
48 : 15 f.; 49 : 1-27 ; Exod. 12 :32 ; 21 :i7(E);'7 23 : 21 (E), 25-31 (E); 
Numb. 22 :6; 24 : 9 ; i Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28 ; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.; 
19: 39; Deut. 33 : 1-29 (E); Judg. 9:57; 21 :i8. 

Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol- 
lows : (i) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres- 
sion used, e. g., Judg. 21:18; i Sam. 2 : 20 ; Deut., chap. 33 ; (3) 
important cases of blessings or cursings, e. g., (a) Jacob's last words 
(Gen., chap. 49), (d) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), (c) David's curse 
on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element 
in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation, 
e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22 : 6), by Goliath (i Sam. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con- 
nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in 
connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23 : 21, 25-31). 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^ 
Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11 : 26-30 ; 27 : 11-26 ; 28 : 1-68 ; 29 : 19-21 ; 
30:1, 7, 19 ; Josh. 8 : 34 ; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; i Kings 8:i4f., 
55 f.; cf. Ps. 68:1-3. 

Make a similar classification of the material coming from the 
middle period, noting as cases of special interest (i) the arrangement 
for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and 
Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the 
curses (Josh. 8 :34); (3) the old Toya.\/orm of blessing (i Kings 8 : 14 f., 
55 f.); (4) 2, form of national blessing {cf. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic 
use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings 
and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code 
(Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68). 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'' 

Gen.28:3f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5 :i2-3i; 6 :22-26; 
Neh. 10 :29 ; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34 :24 ; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5:3; Mai. 2:2; 
3:9; Pss. 109 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Dan. 9:11. 

Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of 

*^ All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). 

*7 This reference is from the Covenant Code. 

^^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 

'9 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37 

special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 13 f.); (2) the 
priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6 : 22-26); (3) the forms of doxology 
used in later worship {cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses 
announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12, 
16-45); (5) ^^ thought even in later times that "it was worth while to 
curse a bad man" {cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the 
good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were 
of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2). 

§144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and 
cursings, including the following points: (i) the words translated 
blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped 
formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under- 
lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per- 
son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery {cf. the 
curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings 
— were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica- 
tion : {a) one nation by another, {8) one individual by another, {c) as 
attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison 
of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with 
the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ; 
(9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the 
modifications which are made; (10) a comparison of the New Testa- 
ment representations on this subject'" — are blessings and curses found 
in the speeches of Jesus? if so, how are they to be understood? (11) 
this usage among the Arabians ;'' (12) this usage among the Assyri- 
ans;" (13) the relation of this usage to prayer. 

§ 145. Literature to be Consulted. 

EwALD, Op. cit., pp. 76-9; ScHULTZ, Op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs, 
Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 1 15-20; VV. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in 
Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., p. 164; L. W. King, 
Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (1896); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Z>zV- 
tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. Cheyne, 
article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman, " The 
Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan- 
guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106. 

'^See, e. g.. Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14 : 19 ; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Luke 2 : 28, 34 ; 9:16; 
24:5of.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12:14; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Mark 7: 10; ii:2i; 
Matt. 15:4; 25 :4i. 

"C/". Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien. 

** Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim. 



138 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Merx, articles " Fluch " and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II 
(1869); ScHENKEL, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article 
"Segen, Segming," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Riehm, article 
"Fluch," Handwbrterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126; 
SCHWALLY, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI 
(1891), pp. 170 ff.; NowACK, op. cit.y Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit., 
p. 146 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 91, 116. 

§146. The Ban. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. 22:19; (E);=3 Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8:26(E); Judg. 1:17; 
21:11; I Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20. 

2. The middle period.''* 

Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; ii:ii f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa. 
43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; 13:17*-; 20:17; Jer. 25:9; 
50:21, 26; 51:3. 

3. The late period.''^ 

Isa. 34 : 2, 5 ; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 :2i, 28!; Numb. 18 :i4 ; Isa. 11:15 ; 
Zech. 14:11; I Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Dan. 
1 1 : 44. 

Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the 
material thus gathered as follows : (i) words used to mean dan or 
destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub- 
ject to ban, e. g., (a) idols, (^) individuals regarded as enemies of the 
nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d) 
individuals personally objectionable, (e) metals; (3) the regulations at 
various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made 
from period to period, e. g., Josh. 6:24; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29. 

§ 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking 
up (i) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship {a) to the vow, {b) to 
the idea of clean and unclean, {c) to taboo ; (3) a classification of per- 
sons or things liable to the dan; (4) the changes which came in later 
times; (5) the attitude of the prophets; (6) the non-appearance of the 
term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa- 
ment development of the idea {cf. i Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the 
idea in other Semitic nations {cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).'^ 

»3 This reference is from the Covenant Code. 

'4 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of 
Deuteronomy. 

'S References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 

«*Cy. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; von Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen- 
Idndischen Gesellschaft,Yo\. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff.; W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., Index, s. v. 
"Ban;" Stade, Gesck., Vol. I, pp. 490 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39 

§ 148. Literature to be Consulted. 

EWALD, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R. 
Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 150,371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the 
Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCuRDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments 
(1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, Yo\. I; W. 
H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib.,Yo\. I; T>xy, op. cit., pp. 180, 212 f. 

Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,No\. I (1869); Weber, Die 
Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff.; von Tornauw, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor- 
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I 
(1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 f., 288 ; Nowack, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 
371 f.; II, pp. 266-9 ; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126, 
149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896), 
pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898). 

§ 149. Oaths. 

1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^ 
Gen. 14 :22 ; 15 :8-ii, 17 f.; 21 : 22-24 (E); 22 : 15 (JE); 24 : 1-3, 27 ; 
25 : 33(E); 26:3 (JE), 26-31 ; 31: 53(E); 42: 15(E); 47:29; 50:25 
(E); Exod. 13 : 19(E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; i Sam. 
14:24-30, 39. 44 f.; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:9^; 19:23; 
21 : 1 f., 7 ; I Kings 1:13, 17, 30, 51 f,; 2 :23f., 36-46. 

Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each 
case, (i) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man, 
or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example, 
accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the 
thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or 
prescribed in case of the violation of the oath; (4) any specially inter- 
esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g.., Abraham's 
oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15 : 10), the 
treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies 
(Josh. 2 : 12-14), Saul's adjuration (i Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's 
oath concerning Solomon (i Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon 
(i Kings 2 : 42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20: 7, thou shalt not 
take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro- 
fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)? 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 

Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 :33 ; 34 : i8f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek, 17 : 16-19 ; Deut. 
19: I9ff.»« 

Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special 
interest in connection with (i) false swearing (Deut. I9:i9ff.); (2) 

"7 AH references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and 
Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source. 

'^ This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. 



140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34 : i8 f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer. 
31:33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38 : 16); (5) breaking the covenant 
(Ezek. 17 : 16-19). 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestion s."^ 

Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, igf.; Judg. 21 :5,7; Zech. 
5:1 ff. ; Ezra 10:5; Neh. 10:29; Dan. 12:7. 

Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest 
in connection with (i) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse 
(Numb. 5:iiff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the 
Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f.); (4) the oath concern- 
ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing 
(Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7). 

§150. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of 
the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points: (i) the 
significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under 
the influence of seven things;" (2) the ritual; (3) the various forms of 
the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ; 
(5) its sociological basis; (6) the significance of an oath made by the 
deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes 
in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti- 
tude of the prophets ; ^° (10) the representations concerning swearing 
in the wisdom literature ;3* (11) the representations in the apocryphal 
literature ; 3^ (12) the attitude of the New Testament ; ^^ ^j^) the use 
of the oath among the Arabs ; 3'» (14) its use among the Assyrians and 
Babylonians; (15) its relation to prayer.^s 

§151. Literature to be Consulted. 

H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d 
ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. II, 
p. 70 ; E. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 
180 ff., 480 ; F. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment," yi?Mr««/ of Biblical Literature. 

=9 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 
3° See, e. g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10: 4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8; 8 : 7, 14 ; Isa. 14 :24 ; 19: 18; 
45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23. 
3^ See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2. 
3= See, e. g., i Mace. 6 : 61 f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14 : 33*36 ; Ecclus. 44 : 21. 

33 See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:i6ff.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73; 
Acts 2:30; 23:21 ; Jas. 5: 12. 

34 Cy. Wellhausen, J^este arab. Heidenthums, p. 122; W. R. Smith, Religion 
of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath." 

35 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I 

Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88 ; Duff, op. cit.. Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Oath ; " 
G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Dia. of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op. 
cit., p. 184. 

Saalschutz, Das tnosaische I^echt {1S46), pp. 615 ff.; Bruch, article " Eid," 
SCHENKEL's ^/<J<f/-Z^jrz/^£»«, Vol. II (1869); RiEHM, article "Eid," Handwbrterbuch; 
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Schwur ; " NoWACK, 
op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod, 
See/eng/aude und See/enku/t (iSgS), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den 
Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898). 

§152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the 
Divine Mercy and Help. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. i\ : iZ {]), cf. 24: 18(E); I Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam. 
I : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23 ; i Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 8:3; 9:9, 18-20, 25-29; 10 : 10; Jar. 14 : 12; 36 : 6, 9. 

3. The late period. 

Judg. i8:i7(?); 20:26 £f.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11; 
9 : 1, 31 ; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16; Zech 7:1-7, 18-23; 8: 19; Isa. 58 :3 ff.; 
I Chron. 10:12; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel I : 1 4 ; 2 : 1 2, 1 5 ; Jon. 3:5; 
Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16:29, 31 .3^ 

§153. Questions and Suggestions. 

Consider (i) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for 
fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on 
Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act, 
the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (i Kings 19 : 8 ff.) as a 
preparation for communion with God; (4) the fasting of the men of 
Jabesh for Saul (i Sam, 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. 1:12), 
that is, in mourning for the dead {cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine 
the original meaning of the act, /. <?., an explanation with which these 
various cases may be connected; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or 
in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? ^7 

Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (i) the motive 
or purpose in each case, e, g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra ; (2) 
whether they were private or public {cf., in earlier and middle periods, i 
Kings 21 :9 ff.; Isa. i : 13^^ (Sept.); Jer. 36 :6 ff.; and, in later period, 
Joel I : 13 f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes 
spiritualized {cf. Ahab's case, i Kings 21:29); (4) the connection 
between fasting and penitence {cf. i Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the 

3* This reference is from the Priestly Code. 

37 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434. 



142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting, 
and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came 
in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious 
work," and the prophets' attitude toward this(Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 : 5 f.). 

Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public 
fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (i) in the 
fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth 
month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:12 f.); (3) in 
the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1 ff.); (4) in the 
tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7, 
18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting {a) that this 
is the only fast required by the laws, {B) that there is no allusion to its 
observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, (c) 
the purpose of the day, {d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit 
of the later times ; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman. 

Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (i) in the Psalms ; ^^ 
(2) in the apocryphal literature ; ^^ (3) in the New Testament;'*'' (4) 
among other Semitic nations.-*^ 

§ 154. Literature to be Consulted. 

Samuel Clark, article "Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible 
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. «/., Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431; 
Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, 3^ ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 140 f.; 
Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and 5<frz/2V^j (1874), pp. 263-88; Wellhau- 
SY.^, Prolegomena, Y>'P- 1 10-12; J. S. BLACK, article "Fasting," Encyclopcedia Bri- 
tannica. Vol. IX (1879); Kuenen, The Hexateuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86, 
312; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op.cit., pp. 509 f.; 
C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," SuiTiVs Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) ; 
H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), PP- 186, 286 ff., 383; 
McCuRDY, op. cit., §§ 1 1 16, 1 1 18, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article 
"Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article 
"Feasts and Fasts," ibid., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11 ; M. 
Jastrow, op. cit., p. 688 ; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of," 
Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency- 
clopcedia Biblica, Vol. H (1901) ; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman 
Period (igoi), pp. 305 f. 

38See, ^. 5^., Pss. 35 : 13 ; 69:10; 109:24. 

39 See, e. g., i Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; Ecclus. 34 : 26. 

^°See, e.g.. Matt. 4:2; 6:i6ff.; 9:i4f.; 17:21; Mark 2: 18 ff.; 9:29; Luke 
2 : 37 ; 5 : 33 ff-; 18:12; Acts 10 : 30 ; 13 : 2 f.; 14 : 23 ; 27 : 9, 33 ; i Cor. 7:5; 2 Cor. 
6:5; 11:27. 

*^ See, e. g., the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Jastrow, 
and Black cited in § 154. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONXERNING PRAYER 1 43 

HoLTZMANxN, article "Fasten," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); 
Orelli, article " Versohnungsfest," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1875); H, Oort, 
"De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. X (1876), pp. 142-65; D. 
Hoffmann, Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. I £f.; Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fur kirchliche 
Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83; J. Derenbourg, 
"Essai de restitution de I'ancienne redaction de Massechet YA^-^OMunx,''' Revue des 
etudes juives. No. ii (1883), pp. 41-80 ; Abler, "Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, 
sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestameniliche Wissenschaft, 
Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 178-84; Kuenen, Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XVII (1883), pp. 
207-12; Riehm, article "Fasten," Handworterbuch, Vol. I (1884); Delitzsch, 
article "Versohnungstag," Riehm's Handworterbuch, Vol. II (1884); Stade, Ge- 
jf>4iV>%/<f, Vol. II (1888), pp. 182, 258ff.; Benzinger, " Das Gesetz iiber den grossen 
Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX 
(1889), pp. 65-88; SCHWALLY, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), pp. 26 £f.; Smend, 
op. cit., pp. 142, 319, 330 ff., 396; NowACK, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 270 ff.; Benzinger, 
op. cit., pp. 165, 464, 477 ; DiLLMANN, Op. cit., p. 184 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 234, 283 f.; 
Buhl, "Fasten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898); Frey, 
Tod, Stelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel (iSgS), pp. 37, 81-5, 117. 

§155. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity through 
Oracles, Urim and Thummim, the Ephod, the Lot. 

1. The early period. 

{a) Oracles. — Gen. 24 : 12-14 (J); 25:22f. (J); Judg. i : i ; i8:5f.; i Sam. 

10: 22; 14 : 19, 37; 23: 2, 4, I off.; 28 : 6; 30: 7 f.; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5: 19, 

23 f.; 16:23; 21: if.; 2 Kings 8 : 7 ff. ; Numb. 24 : 3, 15 ; Isa. 15:1; 

Amos 2:11, 16. 
{p) Urim and Thummim. — i Sam. 14 : 4if.; 28 : 4-6 ; 22 : 10, 13 ; 23 : 2, 4, 

6, 9-12; 30:7; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5 : 19, 23!.; 21:1 ; Deut. 33 : 8 (E). 
{c) The ephod. — Judg. 8 : 27^ ; 17:5; 1 8 : 1 4, 20 ; i Sam. 14:18; 21:9 f.; 

23:6,9ff.; 3o:7f.; Hos. 3:4. 
{d^ The lot. — Josh. 16: 1 (J); 17 : 14, 17 (J); Judg. i : 3 ; 20:9; Isa. 17:14; 

Mic. 2 : 5. 

2. The middle period. 

{a) Oracles. — Mic. 4:6; 5:9; Nah. 2:13; Zeph. 1:2; Ezek. 5 : 1 1 ; 1 1 :8, 

21 ; Jer. 1:8; 2 : 3. 
{b) The ephod.— DqmX. 2 : 28 ; Judg. Z\27b. 
{c)Thelot.—]os\\.i2>:6,%,\o{K'^)\ Isa. 34 : 17 ; Jer. 13 : 25 ; Ezek. 24:6; 

Obad. 11; Nah. 3:10; Deut. 32:9. 

3. The late period.** 

{a) Oracles. — Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zech. 1:3; 3:9; 10 : t 2 ; 

12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1. 
{b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21; 

Ezra 2 :63 ; Neh. 7 : 65. 

<" References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 



144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(c) The lot. — Lev. i6 : 8-10 ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33 : 54 ; 34 ^ 13 ; 36 : 2 f.; 
Josh. 14 :2 ; 15:1; 17:1 ; 19 : i. 10. I7. 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 :4, 5 f., 8, 
10,40; I Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24:5,7,31; 25 : 8 f.; 
26:i3f.; Neh. 10 : 34 ; 11 : i ; Esther 3 : 7 ; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57 :6 ; Joel 
3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12:13. 

§ 156. Questions and Suggestions. 

Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which 
seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles, 
Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of 
each, and consider (i) the various circumstances under which such 
consultation is held ; (2) the underlying motive in each case ; (3) the 
relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any) 
between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word 
oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing 
the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use; 
(8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts. 

Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and 
the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these 
external helps increases or diminishes. 

Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting 
the deity, as they may be referred to in (i) the Psalms,*' (2) the 
wisdom literature,'^* (3) the apocryphal literature,*^ (4) the New Testa- 
ment i"^ and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,*' 
(6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,'^^ (7) the ancient Arabs,*' (8) the 
Greeks and Romans.^" 

§ 157. Literature to be Consulted. 

Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and 
Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L. 
Bevan, article "Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893); 
KUENEN, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transl. 1874), pp. 96-100 ; W. M. Ramsay, 

43 See, e. g., Pss. 16:5 ; 22 : 18; 36 : l; IIO: i; 125 : 3. 

^♦See, ^. ^., Prov. i : 14; 16: 33; 18 : 18 ; 30 : i; 31 : i. 

*s Cf Wisdom of Solomon 8:8. 

46See, e. g., Matt. 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke 1:9; 23:34; John 19:24; Acts 
I :26; 7 :38; 8 :2i; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12 ; i Pet. 4:11. 

*7 See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v. 
"Oracle, etc." 

*>^ See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157. 

49 See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in § 157. 

5° See, e. g., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman AntiguitieSt 
s. V. " Sortes." 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I45 

article "Oracle," Encydopcedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 
130 ; T. G. Pinches, " The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol. 
XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid.. Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 12Q-40; S. F. 
Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp. 
252-56; KoNiG, Religious History of Israel (iSSs), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of 
Sem., see Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel {Ca.mh. 
Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian 
and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar- 
haddon and Assurbanipal," -ff^Vra^^^ zur Assyriologie,^2Si^ II (1894), pp. 627-45 ; 
J. F. McCuRDY, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. yiooRY., Judges (Inter- 
national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition 
(1897), pp. 28off.; S. R. Driver, article " Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary, No\. I 
(1898); Jastrow, ^A cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical 
Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40; O. C. 
Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss- 
Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Semitic Languages and 
Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle," 
Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encydopcedia 
Biblica, Vol. II (1901). 

Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und 
Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41; 
G. Klaiber, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); Kohler, Lehrbuch der 
biblischen Geschichte des Alte^ Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article 
"Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); ^i^nu, Hand- 
worterbuch (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f-)> articles " Ephod " and "Licht 
und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade, 
Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, pp. 
126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889), 
pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (189 1), p. 17 ; Sellin, Beitrdge 
zur israelitischen und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 119; WlL- 
HELM LOTZ, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, No\. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo- 
NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff. 

§ 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super- 
natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft. 

1. The early period.^* 

{a) Magic and divination. — Gen. 44:5, 15 (J); Exod. 22:17; Numb. 

22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; i Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f ., 11 ; Isa. 2 : 6. 
{b^ Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; i Sam. 15:23; 2 Kings 9:22. 

2. The middle period. ^^ 

{a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9; 
29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9. 23; 2i:2i£f., 29; 22:28; 2 Kings 
17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic. 5:12. 

5* References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

5= References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



146 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer. 

27:9; Isa. 47:9. 12; 57:3. 
3. The late period.^^ 
{a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 13 : 22 ; Lev. 19 126, 31 ; 20 :6, 27; Zech. 

10 : 2. 
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft, — Exod. 7: 11 ; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ; 

Dan. 2:2. 

§159. Questions and Suggestions. 

Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers 
which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate, 
viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (i) the various 
circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under- 
lying motive in each case ; (3) the relative frequency in different 
periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external 
sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they 
may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods; 
(8) the explanation of this attitude; (9) the relation of all this to 
idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed; 
(11) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance. 

Consider (i) the significance of references in the Psalms ;5'^ (2) 
in the wisdom literature ;^^ (3) in the apocryphal literature ;5* (4) in 
the New Testament.s^ 

Consider the use of these methods among (i) the Egyptians ;5® (2) 
the ancient Arabs ;5' (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians;** (4) the 
Greeks and Romans.^* 

§ 160. Literature to be Consulted. 

F. W. Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {isi ed. 
1863, 2d ed. 1893); SCHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 ff.; E. B.Tylor, 
article "Divination," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VII (1878); Idem, article 

S3 References in bold-f ace type are from the Priestly Code, 
s* See, e. g., Ps. 58 : 5. 55 See, e. g., Prov. 16:10. 

s^See, e. g., Ecclus. 34 12-7. 

57 See, <?. J?-., Acts 8 : 9, 1 1 ; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev. 9:21; 18:23; 
21 :8; 22: 15. 

58 See, e. g., Budge, Egyptian Magic. 

59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, J?el. of Sent., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen, 
I^este arab. Heid., pp. 135-64. 

^See, e. g., Lenormant, Chaldcsan Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and 
Sorcery, 

<5' See, e. g., E. B. Tylor, article " Magic," Encyc. Brit. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47 

" Magic," ibid.. Vol. XV (1883); W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., see Index, s. v. " Charms," 
*' Omens," *' Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time 
of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151-5; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 
1894), see Index, s. v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., pp. 72, 91, 153 ; McCurdy, 
op. cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644, 851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, 
Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand'' (1896); T. W. Davies, Magic, 
Divination and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op, cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical 
Texts," "Sorcer, etc.," "Witchcraft;" F. B.Jevons, article "Divination," Hastings' 
Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T. W. 
Davies, article "Divination," Encyc. Bib.,Yo\. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian 
Magic (iSgg); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p. 22; O. C. Whitehouse, arti- 
cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. cit., Vol. II, see 
Index, s. v. "Divination ; " Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib.,Yo\. II (1901); 
Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). 

Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, und magische Heilarten im Talmud 
(1850); P. Scholz, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebrdern und den 
benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Pro- 
phetenthums (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen, 
Reste arabischen Heidenthums ("Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp. 126, 135-64, 
215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist, 
Assyrische Beschworungsserie Maqlu (1894); Dillmann, op. cit., see Index, s. v. 
"Wahrsager;" Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion (1896, 
1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult {\%()%), pp. 180, 
202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen. 

§161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs. 

1. The early period. 

Amos 5:16; 8:10; Mic. 1:8,16; Isa. 3:24; 15:2; 22:12; 
2 Sam. 3:31; 21:10; I Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 19: if.; Gen. 
37: 34(E), 35 (J); 0^ I Kings 20 : 31 f. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 14: if.; Jer. 16:6-8; 41:5; 47:5; 49 = 3; 48:37; 4:8; 
6:26; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29 : 18 ; 27 : 31 ; 7 : 18. 

3. The late period. 

Lev.19 : 27f.; 21:5; Joel 1:8; Jon. 3 : 5 £f.; Ezra 9:3; Dan. 9 : 3. 

§ 162. Questions and Suggestions. 

Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (i) the 
custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern 
conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing; 
(3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes, 
putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of 
mourning; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut. 
26 : 14); (5) fasting \cf. i Sam. 31 : 13). 

Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they 



148 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to 
what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate 
the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or 
evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been 
incurred; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs (cf. 
Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have 
come about in the progress of history. 

Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs 
in the Psalms,^' (2) in the wisdom literature,^^ (3) in the apocryphal 
literature,^* (4) in the New Testament,^^ {^^ among other ancient 
nations.^^ 

§ 163. Literature to be Consulted. 

Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and 
Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Maspero, Egyptian Archceology (transl. 1887), pp. 108- 
63; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., pp. 322 f., 336, 370, 430 ; A. P. Bender, "Beliefs, 
Rites, and Customs of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection," 
fewish Quarterly Review, Vol. VI (1893-94), pp. 317-47, 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95), 
101-18, 259-69; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl, 1894), PP- 306-27; E. A. 
Wallis Budge, The Mummy {2di. ed. 1894); H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental 
Social Life {iSg 4), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. z/. "Funeral 
Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in 
the Ancient Hebrew Cult," journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp 
137 f.; T. NicOL, article " Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff 
op. cit., Vol. II, see Index, s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing ; " Day, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.; 
Wiedemann, The Realm of the Egyptian Dead. 

Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats- 
schrift fiir Geschichte und IVissenschaft des fudenthums,Yo\.^ (1861), pp. 345-55, 
376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiumque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros- 
KOFF, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Yo\. Ill (1871); Oort, "De 
doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\. XV (i 881), pp. 350 £f.; 
Kamphausen, article " Trauer," Riehm's Handworterbuch, Vol. II (1884) ; Lehrer, 
article "Trauer bei den Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade, 
Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 £f.; G. A. Wilken, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.) ; Well- 
HAUSEN, i'?^/^ arab. Heidenthums {\%^'J),^t^. 159 ff., 178 f.; Qo\.Y)Z\Y{.^^, Muhamme- 
danischeStudien{i?>^S),Yo\. I, pp. 229-63; Schwally,Z>«j Leben nach dem Tode{iSg2); 
Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte (isted. 

^ See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 14 ; 38 : 6 ; 42 : 9 ; 43 : 2 ; 88 : 9. 

^'s See, e. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2 : ii ; 5:11; 30 : 28 ; Eccles. 3 : 4. 

^4 See, e. g., Ecclus. 7 : 34 ; 22 : 11 f.; 38 : 16 ff.; 41 : i ff. 

•53 See, e ^., Matt. 2 : 18 ; 5:4; 9: 15; ii :I7; 24 :30; Mark 16 :I0 ; Luke 6 :25; 
7 : 32; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7 :7; Jas. 4 :9; Rev. 18:8, II. 

^ See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, 
Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 49 

1894), p. 143; NOWACK, op. «V., Vol. I, pp. 187-98; BeNZINGER, <?/. «V., pp. 102, 
165 ff., 428 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 37, 40 ff., 116; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelen- 
kult im alien Jsrael (iSgS) ', Bertholet, Die israelithchen Vorstellungen vom Zustand 
nach dem Tode (1899); Krehl, Religion der Araber; F. J. Grundt, Die Trauerge- 
brduche der Hebrder. 

§ 164. Supplementary Study on Circumcision. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. 4 : 24 ff. (J); Josh. 5 :2 f., 9 (J); Judg. 14:3; 15:18; i Sam. 
14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25 ff.; 31:4; 2 Sam. 1:20; 3:14. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 10:16; 30:6; Hab. 2:16; Jer. 4:6; 6:10; 9:24 f.; Josh. 5 : 4-8 ; 
Ezek. 28 : 10 ; 31:18; 32 : 19, 21, 24-32 ; 44 : 7, 9; Isa. 52 : i. 

3. The late period. ^^ 

Lev. 12 :3; 19 : 23 ff.; 26 :4i ; Gen. 17 : 10-14, 23-27 ; 21:4; 34:14 f-, 
17, 22, 24 ; Exod. 6 : 12, 30 ; 12 : 44, 48 ; i Chron. 10:4. 

§ 165. Questions and Suggestions. 

Study the references to circumcision, considering (i) the more 
interesting narratives concerning instances of circumcision, e, g., {a) 
Moses' son and Zipporah, {b) the circumcision at Gilgal, (^r) the cir- 
cumcision of Abraham's family, of Shechem and his family; (2) the 
characterization of other nations as uncircumcised ; (3) the early 
origin, how shown. 

Consider (i) the explanation of the origin which makes it sanitary, 
/. £.y instituted as a preventive of certain diseases ; (2) the explanation 
which connects it with marriage, as thereby promoting fruitfulness ; 
(3) the explanation that makes it a tribal badge, /. <r., a mark of initia- 
tion into full membership in the tribe (which included religious 
privileges), and therefore an act of sacramental communion, an act of 
sacrifice, a dedication. 

Consider (i) the place of circumcision in the early period, viz., of 
young men (^.^., Gen., chap. 34; Josh. 5:2f.; Exod. 4 : 25), and as a tribal 
distinction {cf. Gen., chap. 34; Ezek. 31: 8); (2) its place in the middle 
period : {a) not mentioned in history or in the older laws, not regarded 
as important ; {b) circumcision of heart called for (Jer. 9 : 24, 25), while 
the circumcision of Israelites is placed on the same plane with that of 
Edomites, Ammonites, and other nations; (^) the spiritualization by the 
prophets furnishing the basis for more extended use in the next period ; 

^ References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 



150 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(3) its place in the later period : (a) the representations of its origin; 
(d) the regulations for the performance of the rite; (c) its position as 
one of the two distinctive ordinances of Judaism, the other being the 
sabbath ; (t/) its significance as a rite of purification. 

Consider representations concerning circumcision (i) in the apoc- 
ryphal literature ;^ (2) in the New Testament,^ and the lack of allusion 
to it in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature. (3) Consider the prac- 
tice of circumcision among the Egyptians, Arabs, and other nations.^" 

§166. Literature to be Consulted. 

T. T. Perowne, article "Circumcision," Smith's Dt'a. of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 
2d ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., pp. 89-97; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 192 £f.; II, pp. 
7-70; KUENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 238, 290; 
AsHER, The Jewish Rite of Circumcision (1873); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 
Vol. II (1874), pp. 363 £f.; T. K. Cheyne, article "Circumcision," Encyclopcedia 
Britannica, Vol. V (1877); E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind (3d ed. 1878), 
pp. 214-19; Kalisch, Bible Studies, Part II (1878), pp. 4-1 1 ; Wellhausen, Prole- 
gomena, p. 340; Renan, History of the People of Israel, No\. I (1887, transl. 1894), 
pp. 104-9; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 328; Bancroft, Native Races (1890), Vol. 
Ill, see Index; P. C. Remondino, History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to 
the Present (1891); H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (1893), pp. 79,215-24, 
351 £.; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 32 f., 539; Schechter, 
Studies in Judaism (1896), p. 343; A. H. Sayce, Expository Times, November, 1897; 
I. J. Peritz, "Woman in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, 
Vol. XVII (1898), p. 136 ; Macalister, article "Circumcision," Yi.KSTY^Q^'' Dictionary , 
Vol. I (i8p8); Benzinger, article "Circumcision," Encyc.Bib., Vol. I (1899). 

Borheck, Ist die Beschneidung urspriinglich hebrdisch ? (1793); Cohen, Dis- 
sertation sur la circoncision (1816); Autenrieth, Ueber den Ursprung der Beschnei- 
dung (1829); LiJBKERT, "Der jiidische ^Tnaira<TfjLbi,'" Theologische Studien und 
Kritiken, 1835, pp. 657-64; Collin, Die Beschneidung (1842); S. Holdheim, 
Ueber die Beschneidung in religios. Beziehungen; Bergson, Die Beschneidung 
(1844); Salomon, Die Beschneidung histor. und medizin.dargestellt (1844); Brecher, 
Die Beschneidung (1845); Steinschneider, Ueber die Beschneidung der Araber 
(1845); G. Y.'?.Y.^'=>, Aegypten und die Biicher Moses, Vol. I (1868), pp. 278-84 ; Steiner, 
article "Beschneidung," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. I (1869); Auerbach, 
Berith Abraham, oder, der Beschneidungsfeier {2d. ed. 1 880); Weber, Die Lehren 
des Talmud (iSSo), p. 373; Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Vblker (2d 
ed. 1882), pp. 360 £f.; Riehm, article "Beschneidung," Handworterbuch (1884); 
Stabk, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VI (1886), pp. 132-43; 
Wellhausen, Restearab. Heidenthums (ist ed. 1887), pp. 154, 168, 215 ; Holzinger, 

^^See, e. g., i Mace, i: 14, 48, 60 f.; 2 Mace. 6 : 10. 

<^See, <?. g., Luke 1:59; John 7 : 22 f.; Acts 15:5 ; 16:3; 21:21; Rom. 2:25 ff.; 
I Cor. 7 : 18 £.; Gal. 5 : 2 f.; 6 : 13 ; Col. 3:11; Phil. 3 : 5. 

7° See especially the references to the works of Tylor, Bancroft, W. R. Smith, 
Wellhausen, Ploss, Ebers, Erman, and Reitzenstein, cited in § 166. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I5I 

Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 133, 365, 437; Smend, op. cit., pp. 37 £., Il6; 
NowACK, op. cit., pp. 167-71 ; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 153 £f.; Budde, Zeitschrift fiir 
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIV (1894), P- 250 ; Glassberg, Die Beschnei- 
dung (1896); Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alten Testament (1896), 
pp. 165, 174; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Frem- 
den (1896), see Index, s. v. " Beschneidung ; " Marti, op. cit., pp. 43, 163 f.; J. 
Jaeger, " Ueber die Beschneidung," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, July, 1898, pp. 479-91; 
Zeydner, " Kainszeichen, Keniter und Beschneidung," 2^itschrift fiir die alttesta- 
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVIII (1898), pp. 120-25; REiTZEHSTEin, Zwei religions- 
geschichtlichc Fragen (1901). 



Paet Foueth 



THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE LEGAL 
LITERATURE 

Xn. The Deuteronomic Code. 
XIIL Ezekiel's Contribution. 
XIV. The Priestly Code. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE LEGAL LITERATURE THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE OF LAWS. 

§ 167. The Literature of Worship includes that portion of the Old 
Testament literature which concerns itself with the subject of worship 
in any of its forms, or was written by men imbued with the priestly 
spirit. Here belong : 

1. The legal literature {cf. §9), or codes of laws and regula- 
tions dealing with the various elements in worship ; these codes 
include more than can properly be classified under the head of 
worship, but everything in them may be said to be priestly in its 
character. 

2. The historical literature (§10), viz.. Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, and the priestly history in the Hexateuch (=P). 

3. The hymnal literature (§ 8), as found in the book of Psalms. 

A marked spirit of unity characterizes all this literature, and dis- 
tinguishes it from the prophetic and the wisdom literature (§ 2). 

§168. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament 
is found in four groups or codes of legislation, viz.: 

1. The covenant code (§20), the earliest form of Exod. 20:23— 
legislation, ordinarily called the prophetic code, because 23.19,34.10-2 . 
it is incorporated in literature of a prophetic charac- 
ter. 

2. The Deuteronomic code (§§ 25-28), so called Deut. 12:1— 26:19; 
because it forms the principal part of the book of ^ ^^"^ • 
Deuteronomy. 

3. Ezekiel's system of worship (§ 31), which is, Ezek., chaps, 
strictly speaking, priestly and legalistic, although the ^°~^ * 
work of a prophet. 

4. The Levitical code (§§ 41-44), so called because 
it is found in the book of Leviticus (with portions of 
Exodus and Numbers). 

§ 169. The Covenant Code (§ 20), or prophetic code, 
is the codification of law and usage in Israel down to 
about 650 B. C. Concerning this code there may be 
noted: 

15s 



156 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

judg. i7:7ff. I. Its prevalence is synchronous with the period in 

which the order of priests does not occupy the place of 
power in Israelitish thought. When the priests take a 
more influential place in the affairs of the nation, an- 
other code appears (the Deuteronomic), in which this 
higher position is recognized. 

2. Its form, contents, and character are rather pro- 
Exod. 20:24 ff. phetic than priestly, since, although (i) the act of wor- 
Exod. 23 : 14-17. ship is recognized (§73,1), (2) provision is made for 
Exod. 22:18. feasts and offerings (§ 96), (3) reference is made to magic 

and sacrifice to other gods (§158, i), all this is of the 
simplest character, and no tendency exists toward the 
development of a priestly system, there being no men- 
tion even of a priest or a priestly order (§ 59, i). 

3. It furnishes a formulation under prophetic influ- 
ence of the old Semitic usage, and, at the same time, 
the basis on which the later codes are developed. 

4. Its relation to these later codes has been shown in 
the comparative examination of various usages (§§59- 
166). 

2 Kings 22: 3— §170- The story of the Discovery of Deuteronomy 

.3^.5. (§25).. 

2 Kings 21:1-26. I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this 

event occurred, viz., the preceding reigns of Manasseh 
and Amon, their character, the forms of worship 
encouraged, the prophetic attitude (2 Kings 21 : 10- 
15), the particular royal acts regarded with disfavor 

See KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 370-79 ; 
BuDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 161-9; Kent, A History 
of the Hebrew People^ Vol. II, pp. 159-64; Wellhausen, Prolego- 
mena to the History of Israel, pp. 485 £f. 

» It is generally acknowledged by interpreters that the original story of the dis- 
covery of Deuteronomy has been edited from the point of view of later times. The 
account, as it now stands, comes from three sources: (i) the early narrative, (2) the 
pre-exilic redaction, (3) the post-exilic redaction. The parts that show the clearest 
evidence of the work of the post-exilic editor are 2 Kings 22 : 14-20 ; 23 : 8 ff., 16-18, 
21-23, 25<^-27 ; the work of the earlier editor appears in 23 : 3, 13, 24 f.; while 22 : ^b, 
6, 8 ("the high-priest") ; 23 : 4/J, 5, ']b, 14, 16-20, seem to be minor glosses. The pur- 
pose of these additions and modifications was to furnish an explanation, from the later 
point of view, of the disaster that fell upon Judah so soon after this reform. 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I $7 

2. Study the principal details of the discovery, e. g.^ 

(i) the chief agent, the priest; (2) the phrase "the book » J^^.°f|.""^' ^' 
of the law;" (3) the strange effect of the reading upon 2 Kings 22:8. 
the kins:; (4) the consultation with Huldah — her oracle, ^ ^^^^^ "•"• 

° ' ^^' a Kings 22 : 14-ao. 

Its original form and meaning; (5) the convocation of a Kings 23:1!. 
the nation and the public reading; (6) the covenant 
entered into; (7) the phrase "his commandments, and 

his testimonies, and his statutes;" (8) the phrase "with 2 Kings 23:3- 

all his heart and all his soul;" (9) one by one, the 2 Kings 23 : 4-20. 

various acts of reformation instituted by Josiah ; (10) 2 Kings 23 : 21-23. 

the observance of the passover; (11) the purpose of a Kings 22:8; 
these acts, viz., to confirm "the words of this covenant 
which were written in this book," etc. 

3. Consider (§26) the immediate results of the find- * ^^8^ 23:4-24. 
ing of this book, and compare these results with the 

actual provisions of the book of Deuteronomy, and 
determine: (i) whether Deuteronomy commands any 
essential thing which Josiah did not try to do ; (2) 
whether Josiah undertook any act of reformation for 
which Deuteronomy does not make provision. 

4. Take up now three important questions: (i) Is there 
any reasonable doubt as to the identity of the book 
found by Hilkiah with the book of Deuteronomy, or, 

at least, a portion of it ? (2) Does the story in Kings of 2 Kings 23:8-1 3. 
the finding of the book definitely indicate a belief, on 
the part of its writer, that the book discovered was one 
written by Moses, or of Mosaic origin ? (3) If such 
Mosaic origin is implied in the narrative, what explana- 
tion of the narrative is possible from the point of view 
of those who deny the Mosaic origin of the book ? 

5. Take up, still further, these questions : (i) Do the 

facts of the reformation furnish evidence that the book a Kings 23: 4-34. 

which authorizes them is of ancient date, that is. Mosaic ? 

(2) Could these facts be accounted for just as easily and 

naturally on the other supposition, that is, that the book 

of Deuteronomy was prepared during Manasseh's reign, 

lost, and found in Josiah's reign ? (3) In this latter case, 

what motive, worthy of the situation, could be ascribed 

to those who took part in the transaction ? Would it be 

sufficient to say that it was done to recommend certain 



158 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

reforms and to establish more firmly the national reli- 
gion ? 

§171. Representations in Deuteronomy Concerning its 
Authorship. 
i:i-5;2 4:if., 44 I. Read and interpret the passages in Deuteronomy 

9,"ii; '29. if.; which make reference to its authorship, noting the par- 

f.,3o;'32:44ff-; ticular portions of the book which contain these refer- 
33: if. 

ences, and noting, further, that the strictly legal portion, 

12 : 1 — 26 : 19, contains nothing of this kind. 

2. Consider whether it was customary in ancient 
times to ascribe to great men writings whose authorship 
was unknown, and whether instances of this custom are 

Prov. 10:1; 25:1. found (in sacred writings) in the case of (i) Solomon,' 
to whom are ascribed proverbs and psalms and books 

Pss. 103; 122; 124; which are of a manifestly later age; (2) David,* to whom 
psalms are ascribed which certainly date from a post- 

isa., chaps. 40-66. exilic time; (3) Isaiah,^ to whom prophetic discourses 
are ascribed which are now almost universally recognized 
as belonging to the exilic and post-exilic periods ; and 
(in secular writings) (4) the letters and many of the dia- 
logues assigned to Plato;* (5) the "Shield of Hercules" 
and many other works ascribed to Hesiod.' 

3. Consider also the ancient custom in accordance 
with which writers, for certain reasons, ascribed their 

Eccies. 1:1, 12. own writings to great men, as in the case of (i) the 

Song of Solomon writer of Ecclesiastes;^ (2) the writer of the Song of 

Solomon ;' (3) the authors of the " Wisdom of Solomon " 

^\o':2]''eic.^'''''' and of the "Psalms of Solomon ;"^° (4) the author of the 

^ All Scripture references in this chapter which are cited without the name of the 
book are from Deuteronomy. 

3 See, e. g:, Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), 
pp. 406 ff. 

4 See, e. g., Driver, op. cit., pp. 373 ff. 

sSee, <?. g., Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah. 

* See Jevons, History of Greek Literature, pp. 482 f. 

7 See Jevons, op. cit., p. 86. 

^See articles on " Ecclesiastes" in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible and in 
Encyclopedia Biblica. 

9 See Driver, op. cit., pp. 437 £f. 

" See articles on " Apocrypha " in Encyclopcedia Biblica and in Hastings's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible.. 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 59 

book of Daniel ;" (5) Plato putting his words into the 
mouth of Socrates;" (6) the alleged correspondence 
between St. Paul and Seneca, consisting of fourteen 
letters/3 

4. Consider the Egyptian custom of placing in con- c/. 31:36. 
nection with religious works the statement " found in the 
temple," this being understood to be, not a statement 

that a book had been lost and found, but a conventional 
fiction of the priestly class to affirm its sacred and 
authoritative character.''* 

5. Consider, however, whether, after all, it is not 
quite certain that the leaders of the time, as well as the 
people, supposed the ''found" book to have been (i) 
lost for many years, (2) actually discovered, and (3) of 
Mosaic origin. 

§ 172. The Point of View and Coloring of the Book. 

1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i) 

the situation — border of the wilderness — outside the i:if. 

Holy Land ; (2) the lack of any reference to Jerusalem 

or the temple; (3) the frequent representation that the i:8;4:i; 6:iof.; 

land is not yet occupied ; (4) the constant reference to 7:1-5,17-24; 

the Canaanites as Israel's enemies; (5) the references to 6:2*1; 7:8,18; 

Egypt as a recent place of dwelling; (6) the references 4:3,4. 

to events which those addressed had themselves seen ; 

{7) the many Egyptian reminiscences, e. g., of methods 11:10; 25:2,3; 

of irrigation, bastinado, writing of law on plastered stones, " : 18 ; n :'io; 

wearing of law as amulet, deliverance from Egypt, Egyp- 28:27,35;5:'i5; 

tian diseases, motives of kindness to servants. 

2. Consider, on the other hand, whether all these 
points are not capable of other explanation, (i) Is it 
inconceivable that the writer planned to give his book a 
Mosaic setting — in other words, that all this material is 
merely to be regarded as a part of the dr*»matic repre- 
sentation ? Is the book not thoroughly dramatic in its 

"See Driver, The Book of Daniel (Cambridge Bible), pp. xlvii-lxxvi. 

"See the "Channides," "Lysis," "Protagoras," etc.; and compare JowETT, 
Dialogues of Plato (Macmillan Co., New York, 5 vols.). 

'3 See LiGHTFOOT, St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, p. 260. 

** See Cvi'E.Y'SY., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, p. 85 ; Maspero, Histoire ancienne 
de r Orient {isi ed.), pp. 57, 73; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens (ist ed.), pp. 60, 84. 



l60 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

5:6-21; ^/. Exod. whole presentation ?*5 (2) Is it not to be expected 
i4:2i3y cf. Exod that the writer, if a late one, would include material of 

23 rig^, 

16:4^/ cf. Exod. the earlier times? Is there anywhere a claim that he 

23: 18^. 
23:7,8; r/. 23: 3. includes only late material? (3) Is the author of the 

book really as hostile to the Egyptians as a writer would 
be expected to be, if he lived in the generation follow- 
ing the exodus ? If so, how explain the permission to 
admit an Egyptian to religious privileges in the third 
generation, when this privilege is denied other nations 

17:14-17, until the tenth generation ? (4) Is not the writer living 

in a time when the upper classes have an attachment to 
Egypt, which he must oppose, for how otherwise explain 

isa., chaps. 30, 31; Deut. 17 : 14-17 ? (5) Is it not true that there was con- 

36 : 6 ; 2 Kings 

i8:2i;£/.25:26. stant Communication with Egypt between 750 B. C. and 
600 B. C, and may not these Egyptian references be 
explained on the ground of this intimacy ? 

3. Are there not allusions which furnish direct evi- 
dence that the writer is living at a distance from the 

2:34; 3:4, 8, etc.; period of which he treats ; e. g., (i) are the phrases "at 
that time," " unto this day," appropriate in the mouth 
of Moses, when the events described occurred during 
the preceding six months {cf. i : 3 with Numb. 33 : 38, 
thus fixing the date of Numb. 20:22-28)? (2) How 

a4:9;25:i7;23:5; explain 2 : 12 as Mosaic? (3) Could Moses have used 
appropriately the phrase "when ye came forth out of 

x:i,5; 3:8; etc. Egypt" ? (4) Must the writer not have lived in western 
Palestine in view of his use of the phrase beyond the 
Jordan of eastern Palestine ? 

§ 173. The Language and Style of the Book. 
I. Examine a list of special words and phrases'* fre- 
quently occurring in the book of Deuteronomy, and con- 
sider (i) the bearing of the fact of such a list upon the 
question of authorship ; does it argue for or against 
identity of authorship with the other books of the Penta- 
teuch? (2) the general character of these expressions as 
indicating early or later authorship. 

''S Cf. the same element in the book of Job, viz., a dramatic representation of 
antiquity in connection with the presentation of a (comparatively) modern thought. 

*^ See, e. g.. Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy^ 
pp. Ixxvii-lxxxiv. 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE l6l 

2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities ap- 
pearing in the book,*^ /. e., the peculiar forms, idioms, 
etc., and consider whether these exhibit evidence (i) of 

antiquity of date, or (2) of late date. With what writer cy. jer. 7 : 1-26 ; 
^ ■' ' \ / 11:1-8; 16:1- 

in the Old Testament does the book of Deuteronomy 13; 21:3-10. 

show the largest number of similarities ? 

3. Consider (i) the general style of Deuteronomy, c/. 2:28 with 

viz., classical, pure, broad, copious, idiomatic; (2) the 1:28 with 
' ' r ' ' r 7 \ / Numb. 13 : 28 ; 

striking points of style which distinguish this book from 1:35, 36,39,41 
the other Pentateuchal books, and, indeed, from other 14:23,24,311 

4o3. 

Old Testament books, viz., {a) individual, affecting even 
quotations ; (^) the hortatory element, based upon {c) the 
oratorical. 

§ 174. The Material of the Book. — Make an examina- 
tion of the material of the book with a view to finding 
evidence for and against the Mosaic authorship, as 
follows : 

1. Note (i) the prohibition of intercourse with the 7:1. 

Canaanites: (2) references to Israel's condition in the 4:3, 4; 7:1; 8:1; 

' ^ ' 9:1. 

wilderness; (3) the directions for appointing a king; 17:14. 

(4) the law for the cities of refuge, possible only at the 19:1-10. 

time of the entrance; (5) the order to recall what 25:17-19. 

Amalek did to them; (6) directions for the blessing 27:11-16, 

and cursing on Mount Ebal ; and consider whether 

material of this kind could possibly have had its origin 

at any other than a very early time, viz., the time of 

Moses. 

2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether the 
presence of this material has not already been accounted 
for in the statement (see § 172, 2) that the book is con- 
ceded to contain much very old material which has been 
handed down and incorporated side by side with the 
newer material ; and (2) whether the presence of the 
newer material can possibly be explained in a book of 
Mosaic origin, e. g., (a) the prohibition of star-worship, 4: 19; 17:3. 
which is late; (d) warnings against lower forms of proph- 18:10-12. 
ecy, which cannot have antedated Amos and Hosea ; 

'7 See, g. g.. Driver, op. «V., p. Ixxxiv ; HohZi^G^R, £znUz^ung in den Hexateuch, 
pp. 282-91 ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testa- 
ment"), pp. xxxii-xli. 



1 62 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

12:1-7. (^) the law centralizing worship at one place; (^) laws 

Chaps. 15 ; 21 ; 23 ; |-j^g those concerning contracts and inheritance, which 
mark an advanced state of social development: 

3. Consider from the point of view of the material 
the truth or falsity of the following statements : " The 
Israel of Deuteronomy is separated from the Israel of 
the exodus by a complete social revolution ; " " The 
nomadic tribes have grown into a settled and wealthy 
community whose organization no longer needs to be 
constituted, but only to be reformed." 

4. Consider in their bearing on this question the 
31:9; 33:1.4; following: (i) certain passages which manifestly cannot 

34. ' * be ascribed to Moses, e. g., the account of his death ; 

Mai. 4:4. (2) the fact that the first reference in the prophets to a 

Mosaic code occurs in post-exilic times ; (3) the lack of 

consistency which appears in so many cases in com- 

1:9-13; cf. Exod. parison with the other parts of the Pentateuch, e. g., the 

.13-2 . difference in the representations concerning the appoint- 

i:22f.;r/. Numb, ment of assistants to Moses in his work as judge ; the 

different accounts of the sending out of the twelve spies; 

i:37t;</.Numi). the different causes assigned for Jehovah's anger against 

20 * 12. 
19:1-13; cf. Moses ; the many differences between the last chapters 

Numb. 35:9-34. q£ Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy, though both 
^^ii^ia-^'^^ib^' ^^^ assigned to the same year ; (4) the repetitions of laws 
Chap, 16; f/. which occur also in other books, ^. p*., the law against 

Exod. 23 : 14 ; ' d » o 

Lev., chap. 23. seething a kid in its mother's milk ; the law concerning 

Chap.5;<:/.Exod., ° 

Chap. 20; chap, feasts ; the decalogue ; the law of clean and unclean. 

14 ; cf. Lev,, 

Chap. II. 5. Consider the cases in which Israel's leaders in the 

iSam.9:i2-i4; early period show utter disregard of Deuteronomic laws, 
16:2; 10:3,5,8; -' ^ ° 

ff ^*s^^ ^6'-^° without any indication that what they do is regarded 
17*. as illegal; e.g., Samuel sacrifices at other places than 

Jerusalem ; Elijah sacrifices on Mount Carmel ; David 
also offers sacrifice. 

6. Consider the bearing upon this question of the 
more important teachings (see § 178). 

§ 175. The Book of Deuteronomy as Related to Other 
Old Testament Literature. 
Josh. 1:22, 23; I. Examine the strongly Deuteronomic character of 

2 : 10, II ; 3 : 7; *-> J 

10:28-43; certain passages in Joshua, Judges, and Kings, and con- 

judg. 2:11-23; sider whether these are to be explained (i) as themselves 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 63 

early, and indicating the existence of the book of Deu- i-T^io^e-ii- 

teronomy at an early date; or (2) as later interpolations l^^^^^^:^'^.' 

and expansions by Deuteronomic editors after the publi- "Kings o-?- 

cation of Deuteronomy in 621 B. C. (see § 180). ^J^'' ^7 7-23; 

2. Examine the remarkable cases of similarity (in 4:30; <:/. jer. 

thought and form) between Jeremiah and Deuteronomy'^ "'jer. 7?23. 

(</". the sixty-six passasres from Deuteronomy of which 25^6." " 

V , . , 1 . 1 . r T 18 20; ^/. Jer. 

there are echoes in not less than eighty-six of Jere- 29:23. 

miah); and consider whether this is to be explained by * 7^33.^ 

supposing (i) that Jeremiah was particularly fond of, and 16:13. ' 

familiar with, the ancient Deuteronomy; or (2) that Deu- 5-*i5. ^ * 

2Q ■ 2^ • c/" Tcr 

teronomy and Jeremiah are the product of nearly the 22:8, ' 

same times, the latter being strongly influenced by the T.-^if ' 

former ; or (3) that Jeremiah was himself the author of '%*:i2!^ * 

Deuteronomy.'' 

3. Consider the significance of the fact that in the 
genuine portions of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah none of 
these Deuteronomic phrases are to be found. 

4. Consider, still further, the cases in later literature Neh. 1:5-11; 

9 : 6 It. ; 

in which the Deuteronomic phrases still maintain them- Dan. 9:4-19; 

^ I Chron. 29 : 19 ; 

selves, <f. F., Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Daniel. 22:13; 28:8,20; 

' * 2 Chron. 32 ; 7. 

§ 176. The Book of Deuteronomy and the New Testa- 
ment. 

1. Examine the allusions in the New Testament to Marki:44;i2:26; 
the "law of Moses," and consider the bearing of these J!l"'?6:29!'3^! 
statements on the authorship of the Pentateuch in gen- 5l46^f.'^'*'8:"'5f^ 
eral i! 17; 7 '19; Acts 

C^*^" J5:2i; -^8:23; 

2. Examine the quotations in the New Testament „*^°'^'^'7* 

^ Matt. 19:7 f . ; 

taken from the book of Deuteronomy, and consider the 22:24; Mark 

■' ' 10:3 f. ; 12:19; 

bearing: of the statements made in connection with them ^"^® 20:28, 

° Acts 3:22; 7:37; 

on the authorship of Deuteronomy in particular. Rom. 10:19. 

3. Consider the three interpretations which have been 
made of these and similar passages: (i) that the state- 
ments are literally true and are to be accepted as final ;^ 

*^ZUNZ, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Geselhchaft, 1873, PP- 671-3; 
Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii ff. 

*9But see Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii f . ; Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and 
Times, pp. 81 f.; J. L. Konig, Alttestamentliche Studien, II; Kleinert, Das 
Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker. pp. 185-90, 235. 

»°See Alvah Hovey, "The New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation of 
the Old Testament," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 207-13. 



l64 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(2) that Jesus and the New Testament writers, though 
knowing the real facts, accommodated themselves to the 
point of view of their times and accepted the traditional 
interpretation, not wishing to arouse opposition over a 
matter of comparatively slight importance and thereby 
detract attention from the great truths they wished to 
teach;" (3) that Jesus and the New Testament writers 
were not sent to teach historical and biblical criticism, 
hence were not given any more knowledge concerning 
such questions than was possessed by their contem- 
poraries.''' 

§177. Is Not the Book a Forgery and a Fraud, if 
Not Written by Moses? 

1. Consider (i) whether, in view of its own assertions 
and the general belief, this book is not a fraudulent 
imposture, if Moses did not write it ; (2) whether, if a 
forgery, it could under any circumstances be counted 
among the sacred writings; (3) how, if a forgery, it 
could possibly have gained acceptance in the Jewish 
nation ; (4) whether the writer, whoever he was, did not 
secure its acceptance on the pretense that it was the 
work of Moses. 

2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether, in those 
days, there was anything in existence like the literary 
usages and laws of the modern world, e. g., any literary 
proprietorship, any literary copyright; and, if these were 
not in existence, can the modern conception of forgery or 
plagiarism have existed ? (2) the suggestions made above 
(§ 171, 2, 3) concerning ancient customs in connection 
with writings ; (3) whether there are not books of excellent 
morality which are, nevertheless, literary forgeries ;^3 (4) 
whether there have not been cases in which a modern law- 
book has been palmed off as ancient ;'"* (5) whether the 
proposition of forgery is possible in view of the fact that 

Chap. 18. the supposed forgers, the priests of Zadok, include laws 

" See G. B. Stevens, " The Bearing of New Testament Statements upon the 
Authorship of Old Testament Books," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 164-70. 

'^^See C. H. Toy, "The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old Testament," 
Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 124-33. 

"^^E. £., the Sibylline oracles. '* Cf. Sir Henry Maine, in Ancient Law, p. 82 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I65 

touching the interests of the country-Levites which are 
indirect conflict with the interests of the Zadokites ;'s 
(6) whether the mass of the people who heard the read- 5:i;3i:«i». 
ing of the law was in any proper position to consider 
critically the question of authorship ; (7) whether Hilkiah 
in permitting the belief in the Mosaic authorship was 
really guilty of delusion; was it not rather illusion? (8) 
whether the principle of illusion is not (a) necessary in 
all educational work ;'** {p) practiced in the Old and New 
Testaments;*^ {c) one of the greatest elements in the 
teaching of Jesus himself;'^ (9) whether, after all, the 
writer of this book was not properly using the word 
MoseSy inasmuch as (a) this work was only a continuation 
of the work of Moses, along the same lines and for the 
same ends ; {b) this work was but the fuller growth of 
the seed planted by Moses ; (c) even where the older 
usage is changed, as in the case of the place of 
worship, the principle underlying the change is one 
enunciated by Moses ; {d) the writer is doing only what 
Moses himself under the changed circumstances would 
have done ; {e) the writer has done just what modern 
writers do, as in the case of the name of Webster's 
Dictionary^ the original author having long been dead, 
and the dictionary, although greatly modified and 
enlarged, still bearing his name ; or the name of 
Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar^ many editions having 
appeared since the death of the author, with very 
significant changes in system and matter. 

§178. The Religious Teachings of the Book. — Con- 
sider (i) the general religious teachings and their sig- 
nificance (see § 28) ; (2) the teachings of Deuteronomy 
upon the special subjects compared in §§ 52-166. 

§ 1 79. The Structure and General Character of the Book 
of Deuteronomy. 

I. Consider the various sections which constitute the 

^Cf. Chy.^^'E., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 76 f. 
** Cf. ibid., pp. 77 £. 

*> Cf. Jer. 20 : 7, in which the prophet utters his disappointment in his discoYery 
that he had been illuded (not deluded); also Heb. 4 : 8, 9. 
=8C/. John 16: 12. 



1 66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

book of Deuteronomy as it now stands, and note their 

specific contents : 
1:1-5. (i) Introduction. 

1:6—4:40. (2) The y^/-^/ discourse of Moses, introductory. 

4:41-43. (3) Appointment of three cities of refuge. 

4:44-49. (4) Superscription to the second discourse of Moses. 

5: 1—26: 19; chap. (5) The second discourse — the law. 

Chaps. 5-II. {a) Hortatory introduction. 

Chaps. 12-26, 28. {b) Code of laws. 

Chap. 27. (6) The acceptance of the code. 

29:1—30:20. (7) The />^/>^/ discourse, supplementary. 

31:1-8. (8) Moses's last words of encouragement. 

31:9-13. (9) Delivery of the law to the priests. 

31:14,15,23. (10) Commission of Joshua. 

31 : 16-22, 24-30; (11) Son? of Moses. 

32 : 1-43, 44. \ / tj 

32:45-47. (12) Final commendation of the law to Israel. 

32:48—34:12. (13) Moses's blessing and death. 

2. Consider the literary structure of this material 
upon the modern hypothesis -.""^ ( i ) To P are assigned 
the few touches found in 1:3; 32 : 48-52 ; 34 : i«, ^b, 
7-9 ; consider these passages in connection with the 
commonly accepted idea of P, and note that by means of 
them, at a late date, Deuteronomy was brought into the 
Hexateuch. (2)ToJE are assigned the earlier parts of the; 
book, viz., the incorporation of the blessing (chap. 33, 
this being taken from JE in its original form); 27 : 5-7^/ 
31:14, 15; 31:23; 34:1^, \b~^a, 6, 10. (3) To D, 
the first Deuteronomic writer, and to D% a second Deu- 
teronomic writer, is assigned the remainder, divided as 
follows (D' being in black type): i : i f.; 1:4 — 3:13; 
3:14-17; 3:18—4:28; 4:29-31; 4:32-40; 4:41-49; 
5:1—26:19; 27:1-4; 27:7/^-8; 27:9 f.; 27:11-26; 
28: I — 29: 8; 29:9-28; 30: i-io; 30 : 11-20; 31 : 1-13 ; 
31:16-22; 31:24-27; 31:28-30; 32:45-47; 34:iif. 
D" followed some time after D, and, besides making the 
additions, incorporated the JE portion and the song 

32: 1-43- 
''So Driver, Deuteronomy ; for variations consult Bertholet, Deuteronomium 
("Kurzer Hand-Commentar ") ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (*' Hand-Kommen- 
tar") ; G. F. Moore, " Deuteronomy," ^«0'^/(3/^^^?a Biblica; St a^ekk. Das Deute- 
ronomium, sein Inhalt und seine literarische Form. 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 167 

3. Consider the general character of the material In 
Deuteronomy, consisting as it does of (i) historical, (2) 
legal, (3) hortatory elements. Which of these elements 
is the controlling one ? Is the history narrated simply 
for the sake of imparting a knowledge of historical 
events, or is it used rather for the purpose of illustrating 
and enforcing great truths ? Notice also that the laws 
are imbedded in a didactic setting, and that their gen- 
eral tone is not imperative, but argumentative and per- 
suasive ; reasons are assigned for yielding obedience to 
them and rewards are promised to the obedient. Consider 
also the way in which the prophetic and priestly ele- 
ments are combined in Deuteronomy, how the great ideas 
of the book are of a prophetic character, and how the 
priestly laws are calculated to give concrete expression 
to these prophetic ideas and secure their lodgment in 
the life and thought of the people. 

§180. Other Work of the Deuteronomic Writers. — 
After the book of Deuteronomy was accepted as the law- josh. 1:3-9, 12- 
book of Israel, there seems to have arisen a school of 5: 4-8*;^ 10: 28-' 
writers controlled by the spirit of Deuteronomy whose ^^' 
activity may be clearly traced in the Old Testament i Kings 2 : 10-12 ; 
literature during the years immediately preceding the 1 • 14-66^^9 • 1-9 ; 
exile and onward for a century or more. Their work ^^-^ 5' 
may be seen most clearly in the books of Judges and judg. 2:7, 11-23; 
Kings, which they edited from the Deuteronomic point ei 1^7-10 fete?' 
of view, inserting interpretations of the history of Israel 
based wholly on the teachings of Deuteronomy. Much 
of their work is found also in Joshua, and some traces i Sam. i : 7 f ., la. 
of it appear in Samuel and in the preceding books of Gen. 26:1-5; 
the Hexateuch (§ lys).^^ Exod. 15:26. 

§181. Literature to be Consulted. 

Havernick, Introduction to the Pentateuch (1836, transl. 1850), pp. 410 f.; 
Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Pentateuch (1839, transl. 1847); Keil, Introduc- 
tion to the Old Testament {iS S3, 3d ed. 1873, transl. 1869); Kuenen, The Hexateuch 
(1861, 2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886); Keil, Deuteronomy (1862, 2d ed. 1870, transl. 
1867); Schroeder, Z>^«/^r(>«owj/ (Lange's "Commentary," 1866, transl. 1879); 
EsPiN, Z)^M/^ro«owj/ (" Speaker's Commentary," 1871); Ku'E.-U'Eti, Religion of Israel, 
Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1869 £., transl. 1874 f.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Israel, pp. 402 £f. (ist ed. 1878, 2d ed. 1883, 4th ed. 1895, transl. 1885); W. R. Smith, 

3° Cf Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 29 ff. 



l68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. i88l, 2d ed. 1892); BisSELL, The Penta- 
teuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885); G. Vos, The Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuchal 
Codes (1886); Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times (1888, chaps, v-vii); Driver, 
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament {iSgi, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 69-103; 
KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1892, transl. 1896); H. E. Ryle, 
Canon of the Old Testament {i^g2, 2d ed. 1895), see Index; Montefiore, Religion of 
the Ancient Hebrews {'* YiWih^xi Lectures," 1892), pp. 161-221; S. R. Driver, article 
"Deuteronomy," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); B. W. Bacon, The 
Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (1895), pp. 
80-92; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895), see Index; 
Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. i-xcv ; 
A. Harper, Deuteronomy {^Expositor's Bible, 1895); C. J. Ball, " The Blessing of 
Moses," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, 1896, pp. 118-37; L. W. 
Batten, "The Origin and Character of Deuteronomy," Biblical World, April, 
1898, pp. 246-54 ; Ed. Konig, " The Unity of Deuteronomy," Expository Times, 
Oct. and Dec, 1898, pp. 16-19, 124-7; Feb., 1899, pp. 227-30; G.L.Robinson, 
"The Genesis of Deuteronomy," Expositor, Oct. and Nov., 1898, pp. 241-61, 351-69; 
Feb., Apr., and May, 1899, pp. 151-60, 271-95, 356-71; H. E. Ryle, article "Deuter- 
onomy," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Th. Tyler, "Notes on 
Deut. 32 : 42," Jewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. 379 f.; Addis, The Documents of 
the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 2-30 ; W. P. McKee, "Transient and Perma- 
nent Elements in Deuteronomy," Biblical World April, 1899, pp. 249 ff.; H. G. 
Mitchell, " The Use of the Second Person in Deuteronomy," Journal of Biblical 
Literature, 1899, pp. 61-109; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), pp. 
170-80; F. H. Woods, article " Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 
I, (1899); G. F. Moore, article "Deuteronomy," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); 
Martin, The Tora of Moses (1900); Stibitz, "The Centralization of Jehovah Wor- 
ship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, Jan., 1900 ; Duff, Old Testaj?ient Theology, 
Vol. II (1900); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, I he Hexateuch, 
Vol. I (1900); Hayman, "The Blessing of Moses," American Journal of Semitic 
Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106; Wellhausen and 
Cheyne, article "Hexateuch," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Warren, "The 
Origin of the Pentateuch," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 194 ff- 

KVEFER, Jeremias librorum sacrorum interpres et vindex (1838), pp. 4-45; J- L. 
Konig, " Das Deuteronomium und der Prophet Jeremiah," Alttestamentliche Studien, 
Vol. II (1839); Riehm, Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab (1854); K. H. Graf, 
Der Se gen Mose's (1857); F. W. Schultz, Das Deuterono7nium (1859); KNOBEL,Z>aj 
Deuteronomium (" Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1861); Kamp- 
HAUSEN, Das Lied Moses (1862); Kosters, De Historie-Beschouwing van den Deutero- 
notnist met de Berichten in Gen. — Num. vergeleken (1868); Klostermann, "Das Lied 
Mose's und das Deuteronomium," Studien und Kritiken, 1871 f.; Kleinert, Das 
Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker (1872); Reinke, "Ueber das unter dem 
Konige Josia aufgefundene Gesetzbuch," Beitrdge zur Erkldrung des Alten Testa- 
ments, 8 (1872), pp. 131-80; Riehm, Studien und Kritiken, 1873, pp. 165-200; Zunz, 
Zeitschrift der deut schen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVIII (1873), pp. 669-76; 
Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte Israel und seine Erweiterungen 
(1874); Hollenberg, "Die deuteronomischen Bestandtheile des Buches Josua," 
Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 462-506; Havet, Le Christianisme et ses origines. 



LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 1 69 

Vol. Ill (1878), pp. 32 ff.; Reuss, Vhistoire sainte et la lot, Vol. I (1879), pp. 154 £f.; 
J. J. P. Valeton, " Deuteronomium," Theologische Studien, Vol. V (1879), pp. 169-206, 
291-313; VI (1880), pp. 133-74. 303-20; VII (1881), pp. 39-56, 205-28; Steinthal, 
"Das fiinfte Buch Mose," Zeitschrift fiir Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 
1879, pp. 1-28; Idem, "Die er^ahlenden Stiicke im funften Buche Mose," ibid., 1880, 
pp. 253-89; Delitzsch, "Pentateuch-kritische Studien," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wis- 
semchaft und kirchliches Leben,Yo\. I (1880), pp. 445 £f., 503 ff., 559 ff.; Stade, Zeit- 
schrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. V (1885), pp. 292-300; D'Eichthal, 
Melanges de critique biblique (1886); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), 
pp. 148-73,649-71; yi.XKTi'H, Introduction a la critique generale de VAncien Testa- 
ment, Vol. I (1887), pp. 295 ff.; Vernes, Une nouvelle hypothese sur la composition du 
Deut.; examen des vues de M. d' Eichihal {i?>%']); Kuenen, "De Jongste Phasen der 
Critiek van den Hexateuch," Theologisch Tijdschrifi, 1888, pp. 35 ff.; Horst, "Etudes 
sur le Deut.," Revue de Vhisioire des religions. Vol. XVI (1888), pp. 28-65; XVII 
{1889), pp. 1-22; XVIII (1890), pp. 320-34; XXIII (1895), 184-200; XXVII (1899), 
pp. 119-76; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuch und der historischen 
Biicher des Alten Testaments {i%2,(), 3d ed. 1899); Baudissin, Geschichte des alttesta- 
mentlichen Priesterthums (1889); Van Hoonacker, Vorigine des 4 premiers chapitres 
du Deut. {1889); A. Zahn, Das Deuteronomium (1890); Klostermann, "Beitrage 
zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Pentateuch," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1890-92; 
Mo^TET, Le Deuteronome {iSgi)', Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (iSgi, 
2d ed. 1892), pp. 29-45; Westphal, Zes sources du Pentateuch, Vol. II (1892), pp. 
32 ff.; Oettli, Das Deuteronotnium (1893); H. Preiss, Zum Deuteronomium — ein 
Beitrag zur Kritik des Pentateuchs (1892); Marti, " Das erste officielle Bekenntnis," 
Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, 1892, pp. 29-73; Reuss, Die heilige Geschichte 
und das Gesetz (1893), pp. 106 ff.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- 
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), § 16; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament 
(1893), PP- 209-25; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des Alten Testament (1893, tr. 1894), 
§ II; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 255-331; Steuernagel, 
Der Rahmen des Deuteronomium (1894); WiLLY Staerk, Z>aj Deuteronomium, sein 
Inhalt und seine literarische Form {\%ga,y, PiEPENBRiNG, " La reforme et le code de 
Josias," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XXIX (1894), PP- 123 ff.; Steuernagel, 
Die Entstehung des deuteronomischen Gesetzes (1896); Naumann, Das Deuterono- 
mium (1897); D. Castelli, " Una congettura sopra Deuteronomio 32 : 5," Zeitschrift 
fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVII (1897), pp. 337!.; M. Lambert, " Le 
cantique de Moise, Deut. XXXII," Revue des etudes juives, Vol. XXXVI (1898), pp. 
47-52; VON Gall, " Deuteronomium und Deuteronomius," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest- 
amentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 173-7 ; J- Halevy, "Le Deuteronome," 
Revue semitique, VoX.NW (1899), pp. 313-32; Bertholet, Deuteronomium erkldrt 
(" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899), pp. ix-xxix; Finke, Wer 
hat die s Biicher Moses verfasst? (1900); Klostermann, Deuteronomium und Grdgds 
(1900); Steuernagel, Uebersetzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium 
und fo sua, und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Hand-Kommentar zum 
Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes 
(1901), pp. 103-22 ; Herner, Ist der zweite Dekalog alter als das Bundesbuch ? (1901) ; 
Hummelauer, Commentarius in Deuteronomium (1901). 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE LEGAL LITERATURE — EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION. 

§ 182. The Historical Situation of which Ezekiel 
and his work formed a part deserves careful study 

(§§30 ££•)•■ 

Kings 24: 1-7. I- Gather together the principal facts (i) of the first 

deportation as narrated in Kings, viz., the reign of 
Jehoiakim, its character; the reign of Jehoiachin, the 
invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, the carrying away of the 
princes, etc. (vs. 14); the date of this being 597 B. C; 

2 Kings 25 : 1-21 ; (2) of the second deportation, including the reign of 
Zedekiah, the siege of Jerusalem, its destruction, the car- 
rying away of the residue (vs. 1 1). 

a Kings 25:22-26. 2. Note (i) the situation after the destruction of the 
city under Gedaliah, and the story of Gedaliah's murder; 

jer., chap.24; (2) the prophet's estimate of those taken away captive 

29:15-20. ^^^ those allowed to remain (the good and the bad figs), 

and consider {a) whether it was the captives or those 

left behind who were adjudged the more important; 
Ezek. 11:14-21; ,/7\,.,r, 1 11 

Jer., chaps. 42- also (<?) which of these two classes was supposed to be suf- 

Bzek. 33:24!. fering the more keenly; still further (^), how the lower 
classes left behind regarded these matters. 

Jer., chap. 29. 3. Study Jeremiah's letter" to the captives in Babylon 

and formulate the policy therein advocated in respect to 
business, marriage, etc. 

*See McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill, pp. 227-431 ; 
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 488-98 ; Stade, Geschichte 
des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 675-703; II, 1-67; Guthe, art. "Israel," §§40-47, 
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II. 

»It is very probable that Jer., chap. 29, at least in its present form, is from a 
later writer, for : (l) Jeremiah is spoken of in the third person and described "as the 
prophet;" (2) the nature of the advice given suggests that it comes from one looking 
back upon the conditions he is dealing with, rather than one living in the midst of 
movements the outcome of which was still uncertain; (3) parts of it seem to be 
dependent upon the Books of Kings ; (4) the booklet, chaps. 26-29, bears marks of 
late workmanship, linguistic and otherwise. See, e. g., Cornill, The Book of Jere- 
miah (SBOT); Schmidt, art. "Jeremiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica; BvHM, Das Buch 
Jeremia (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum A. T."). 

170 



LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION I7I 

4. Consider the general effect which the news of the Ezek. 33:21 f. 
fall of Jerusalem must have had when it reached the ears 

of those who were already in captivity, among whom was 
Ezekiel. 

See GUTHE, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 239 £f. 

5. Note (i) that the period was one of transition, or, 
perhaps more truly, of revolution ; one in which mon- 
olatry was to be supplanted by monotheism, idolatry by 
the sole worship of Jehovah ; (2) that the principal 
scene of action was no longer Palestine, but Babylon ; 

(3) that Israel was now scattered, the nationality broken ; 

(4) that the work of the prophetic order was giving 
place to that of the priestly order ; for Jeremiah and Eze- 
kiel were priests, and the books of Haggai, Zechariah, Jer. i : i ; Bzek. 
and Malachi, which follow, are far more priestly than 
prophetic {cf. § 34). 

§ 183. The Preparation of Ezekiel. 

1. Consider (i)the significance of the fact that he was 1:3.3 
a priest, and the great influence, at this time, of the 
priestly position, second only to that of the king; (2) 

the character of the training which he would receive; 22:25, ae; 4:14. 
(3) the influence which must have been exercised over 
him by the book of Deuteronomy and by Jeremiah's ser- 
mons (see § 184). 

2. Note (i) the fact that Ezekiel had been in cap- 33:21; </. 36:1 f. 
tivity already eleven years '* when news of the fall of 
Jerusalem was received ; (2) the fact that the call came to »: «• 

him after five years* experience in captivity (592 B. C); 

(3) the latest date in the book (570 B. C). 29:, 7. 

3. Study (i) the strange and wonderful character of 

5 All Scripture references in this chapter cited without the name of the book are 
from Ezekiel. 

< 33 : 21 states that the tidings came in the twelfth year of the captivity; but we 
learn from 26 : l f. that Ezekiel already knew of the fall of Jerusalem in the eleventh 
year of the captivity. The Syriac version has eleventh year in 33 : 21 also, and this is 
probably correct. Jerusalem fell on the ninth day of the fourth month of the eleventh 
year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25 :2 f.; Jer. 39 : 2), which was also the eleventh 
year of the captivity, since Zedekiah was placed on the throne when Jehoiachin was 
removed to Babylon (2 Kings 24 : 15 ff.); and it is not reasonable to suppose that the 
captives in Babylon did not hear of the fall of their city until a year and a half after 
the event. 



172 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the visions which constituted the call, including (a) the 
i:4-*8. vision of God — what conceptions of God are implied 

in the four living creatures (vss. 5-14), the four wheels 
2: iff. (vss. 15-21), the throne and glory (vss. 22-28)? (d) the 

2:3-7. prophet's introduction to his work by the God seen in 

2:8—3:3. the vision — the people a rebellious one, the inspira- 

3:4-9. tion accorded him, the special strength given him, his 

3:10-15. particular mission to the captives of Tel-abib, the pre- 

3:16-21. cise character of his function, viz., to be a watchman ; (2) 

33:1-9. his later feeling of responsibility as a watchman. 

4. Examine, for the purpose of gaining a better point 
of view for an appreciation of his work, certain refer- 
3:4-11,26; s4:i-5< ences to his life and activity in exile: (i) the character 
11:25. of the people with whom he was called to work; (2) his 

20:1; 8:1; 14:1-5. own character as Jehovah's spokesman ; (3) the fact that 
he was frequently consulted in his own house by the 
24:15-18, 19-27. elders of Israel ; (4) his use of the death of his wife as 
an occasion for a public message ; (5) the threatening 
character of his early sermons ; (6) the consolatory 
character of his later sermons ; (7) his place and stand- 
ing among the exiles. 

§ 1 84. Ezekiel's Prophetic Work. — For the better 
understanding of Ezekiel's work as a priest, and the 
priestly structure of which he was the author, it is 
important that his work as prophet should be appreci- 
ated. This is perhaps most easily considered in connec- 
tion with that of Jeremiah. 

I. Consider the degree of dependence which Eze- 
kiel exhibits in relation to Jeremiah as seen in the fol- 
lowing passages 13:3, ^/. Jer. 15 : 16 ; 3:17,^/. Jer. 
6:17; 7:14, 27, c/. Jer. 4:5-9; chap. 13, c/. Jer. 
14:13-16; 13: 10, ^/. Jer. 6: 14; 16 : 51, ^/. Jer. 3 : 11 ; 
chap. 18, c/. Jer. 31:29 f.; chap. 20, ^/. Jer. 11:3-8; 
24 : 16-23, c/. Jer. 16 : 3-9 ; chaps. 29-31, c/. Jer., chap. 
46; chap. 34, cf. Jer. 23:1-4; 36:26, cf. Jer. 24:7; 
37:24, cf. Jer. 30:9; sS: 15, c/. Jer. 6: 22. 

See especially Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel (" Kurzgefasstes 
exegetisches Handbuch," 1880), pp. xxiv f.; C. H. Toy, art. 
"Ezekiel," EncyclopcBdia Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1462 ; Davidson, The 
Book of the Prophet Ezekiel {Camb. Bible, 1892), pp. xix f, xlvi £f. 



LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION 1 73 

2. Study (i) the place occupied in his preaching by chap. 18; cf. 
the teaching of individual responsibility — does he elabo- je^r^ai^M^f^' 
rate the teaching of Jeremiah on this subject ? does he 

give it any special application to the exiles? (2) his 33:1-17. 

counsels concernine: submission to Babylon and his pre- 

A- .■ • T 1 » f 11 A .k 17:11-21;./. Jer 

dictions concerning Jerusalem s fall, as compared with 28:12-17; 

those of Jeremiah. 38:14-23. 

3. Consider (i) his ethical and social teachings as Chaps. 18, 22, 
enunciated, e. g., in chaps. 18 and 22, and note their 

high character so far as concerns relations between 
Israelites; (2) his attitude toward the outside nations, 
to which no obligations are due, there being as yet no Chaps. 25-32. 
international code. 

4. Consider, also, if possible, Ezekiel's conceptions 
concerning (i) God — how far does he sympathize 
with the older ideas, how far with the new ? Is he a 
monotheist ? or does he accept the existence of other 

deities? Is the conception of Jehovah as a universal 1:26,28; 10:19; 
God associated with the older idea of the tribal God? 43:7-' 

(2) Man — his inward life, his outward life, reward and 18:28; 18:5-8. 

punishment, the hereafter — i-y^^^/, transformation of the 26:20; 31:14-17; 

32 : 17— '" 

heart (regeneration); <:/. Jer. 31: 33. 36:26*." 



-32. 



See Toy, art. " Ezekiel," Encyclop<zdia Biblica, Vol. II, cols, 
1467 £f ; Davidson, op. cit., pp. xxxi-xliii, 

§ 185. Ezekiel's Own Representations Concerning Chaps. 
40-48. — Frequent references are made by the prophet 
to the origin of the material contained in these chapters. 
Consider the various statements: (i) the man with an 40:1-4. 
appearance like brass and a line of flax in his hand, and 
a measuring reed — what or whom did this man symbol- 
ize ? what was his function ? what the purpose of his 
work? (2) the various steps in his guidance of the 40:17,24,28,32, 
prophet; (3) the messages delivered from time to time 42:13; 43': 6-12. ' 
in the progress of the journey; (4) the visions of divine 44:5-8; 47:6ff. 
glory revealed; (5) the use of the phrase, "thus saith 43:1-5; 44:4- 

,, T J r^ J >» 42.18; 44:9; 45:9; 

the Lord God. 46:1, 16; 47:«3. 

Formulate, upon the basis of this material, a state- 
ment covering the author's point of view on this ques- 
tion. 



174 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 1 86. The Structure and General Character of Ezek., 
Chaps. 40-48. 
40:1-43:12. I. Note the contents of the section: (i) plans and 

43:13-27. specifications for the future temple; (2) the ordinances 

44:4-31. for the erection and dedication of the altar ; (3) the law 

45:1-5. concerning the priesthood; (4) the sacred territory 

5:6-25. located and defined; (5) regulations in reference to 

44:1-3; 46:1-18. sacrifices; (6) the function of "the prince," with special 
46:19-24. reference to his religious obligations; (7) the law pro- 

viding special places for the cooking of the sacrifices 
47:1-12. offered by the people; (8) description of the living 

47:13—48:29. waters issuing from the temple; (9) a statement of the 
boundaries of the land and its allotment among the 
tribes, with especial provision for proselytes (47 : 22 f.) ; 
48:30-35. (10) the dimensions of the Holy City and the location of 

its twelve gates. 
4o:x. 2. Consider (i) that this material comes from a 

date twelve years later than any portion of the book^ 
except 29: 17, 18; (2) that there is in this section no 
** teaching" on any subject; (3) that there is given here 
a picture in which a people is represented as living in 
an ideal condition ; (4) ''that it does not describe how 
salvation is to be attained, for the salvation is realized 
and enjoyed ; it describes the people and their condition 
and their life now that redemption has come ; "^ (5) that, 
with the temple occupying the central place, there are 
taken up questions relating to the priests, the sacrifices, 
the land including the Dead Sea, the division of terri- 
tory, the laying out of the city; (6) that, in addition, 
there are the regulations regarding the functions of the 
"prince;" (7) that, in other words, it is an ideal state 

5 Attention may be called here to the fact that the genuineness of the book or of 
certain parts of it has been called in question by some scholars ; e. g., Zunz, Gottes- 
dienstliche Vortrdge der Juden (2d ed.), pp. 165 £f., and in ZDMG., Vol. XXVII, pp. 
676 £f., and Geiger, Urschrift und ubersetzungen der Bibel, p. 23, place the whole 
book in the Persian period; Seinecke, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884), 
pp. I ff., assigns it to the Maccabsean period ; VoLZ, Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie 
und der Messias (1897), ?• 84, note, regards the last nine chapters as the work of a 
disciple of Ezekiel. These views, however, have not met with any general acceptance. 

*A. B. Davidson, op. cit., p. 288. 



LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION I75 

which is thus presented, a conception which constitutes 
the germ of the doctrine of the kingdom of God. 

3. Consider, still further, (i) its form, namely visioriy 40:2; 43:3. 
in contrast with the form of Deuteronomy, which was 
the sermonic; (2) how, not infrequently, it lapses into 45: iff-' 46:xff.; 
the form of sermon or address to the people; (3) 
whether in spirit it more nearly resembles Deuteronomy 
or Leviticus; (4) the strange and confusing mingling of 
the natural and supernatural elements, and show the 
origin of this in the prophetic conception of life ; (5) 
the relation of this picture to the preceding context, in 39:a5-a9. 
which Israel is represented as having now received the 
outpouring of the divine spirit — is it not the climax of 
the book ? 

§ 187. The Principal Ideas of the section deserve clas- 
sification and formulation : 

1. Note the statement, made above, to the effect that 
there were no "teachings" in the section ; this does not 
mean, however, that the picture does not rest upon cer- 
tain conceptions, or imply the truth of certain great 
ideas. 

2. For a general statement of the ideas of Ezekiel in 
this section, see §31. For the material on the priest, 
see §§65, 66; on the place of worship, §§77, 78; on 
sacrifice, §§89, 90; on feasts, §102; on the sabbath, 
§§114, 115; on clean and unclean, §§ 128, 129. 

3. Consider some of the more important of the great 
ideas that underlie the form of presentation employed in 
these closing chapters, keeping in mind constantly the 
necessity in many cases of basing our conclusions largely 
upon the general tone and character of the material 
rather than upon specific statements and texts, (i) The 
idea of God — what is the bearing upon this idea of (a) 

the fact that the temple, Jehovah's house, is placed in the 45:1-8. 
middle of the Holy Land and surrounded on all sides 
by the land of the priests, Jehovah's ministers, thus being 
kept from contact with everything profane and pollut- 
ing ? {b) the stringent regulations concerning those who 44:4-38. 
may approach Jehovah to offer sacrifice, and concerning 
their apparel, etc.? {c) the exclusion of foreigners from 



176 PKIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the temple and of the laity from the inner court of the 
temple ? Does not the whole representation in chaps. 
40-48 give the impression of the great exaltation and 

4351-5. holiness of Jehovah in comparison with everything 

43:6-9; 48:35. human? (2) Jehovah's relation to Israel — note that 
Jehovah is represented as having restored his people to 
favor, and as requiring of them holiness in order that 

44:7,9» they may enjoy his favor forever. Note also the feeling 

of superiority over all foreigners that appears in the 
restrictions placed upon the latter, though provision is 
made for proselytes. Does not the spirit of particular- 
ism appear here very clearly ? (3) The subordination of 
political X.0 religious ideals — note {a) the fact that the 
"prince's" functions are almost wholly religious; {p) the 

45:8-xai46:x6ff. exceedingly few non-religious matters that are dealt 
with ; {c) the complete silence on all matters relating to 
national ambition or development ; {d) the fact that the 
nation is represented rather as a community existing 
only for religious purposes ; {e) the emphasis laid on the 
ceremonial as compared with the ethical side of the reli- 

43:2zff.j 44:27; gious life. (4) The great emphasis laid upon the idea of 

^^•'''' atonement as an evidence of an increasing sense of the 

exceeding sinfulness of sin. Is this not a correlative of 

the exalted idea of Jehovah's holiness ? 

§ 188. The General Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to 

Deuteronomy. 

44:10-15; cf, I. Consider the place of the priests in both sections, 

Deut. 18 : 1-8. 

noting that Deuteronomy makes no distinction between 

priests and Levites, while Ezekiel degrades the Levites, 
gives the reasons for so doing, and restricts the priest- 
hood to the sons of Zadok. 
44:17-27;.:/, 2. Consider the comparative fulness in the treatment 

44:291; chaps, of (i) the duties of priests, (2) the provision made for the 
i8':i-4/'^'^^^ priests; does not this indicate a great advance in the 
conception of the place and dignity of the priesthood ? 
3. Consider the absence in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, as 
compared with Deuteronomy, of warnings against idola- 
try. 
Deut., chap. 16. 4. Consider the feasts as enumerated in Deuter- 

onomy, the sacrificial details being absent; while in 



LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION 1^7 

EzekieH the details of the material are given, and a Ezek. 45:21-^5. 
special ceremony of purification of the sanctuary on the 45: 18-20 (LXX). 
first day of the first and seventh months. 

5. Consider the apparent failure of the Deuteronomic 
scheme in the catastrophe of the exile ; for was not this 
scheme intended for a " holy " people, and to serve as Deut. 7:6. 
the expression of a people closely united with a "holy" 

God ? Was it not intended to bring the people into a 
life which should be worthy of Jehovah, their Lord, and 
was not the destruction of Jerusalem understood to sepa- 
rate them from him ? 

6. Is not Ezekiel's scheme clearly prepared for a 
people restored from captivity, and not only restored, 

but actually purified and regenerated? "It opens with 36:24-28. 
an elaborate account of a new temple set on the sacred 
hill. The Maw of the house' is expounded with much 40:1— 43:12. 
detail, and the prophet then announces the ordinances 
of the altar. These are followed in turn by regulations 
for the priesthood and the appropriate sacrifices, and a 
scheme of cultus is thus displayed by which the people, 
once more consecrated, shall be preserved from further 
temptation to unfaithfulness, and shall secure the pres- 
ence of Jehovah in their midst forever."^ 

The relationship of Ezekiel's cultus to that of P will 
be considered in the next chapter. 

§ 189. Literature to be Consulted. 

P. Fairbairn, Exposition of the Book of £zekiel (iSsi); HENDERSON, TAe Book 
of the Prophet Ezekiel Translated, etc. (1855); H. Smith VVarleigh, EzekieVs Temple 
(1856); CoLENSO, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined {i%t2-']g), 
Vol. VI, pp. 3-23; KUENEN, Religion of Israel (1869-70, transl. 1882), Vol. II, pp. 
190 ff.; CuRRiE,^0<?/^2>/(" Speaker's Commentary," 1876); Kuenen, The Prophets and 
Prophecy in Israel {1S77), pp. 238-42; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of 
Israel {1S7H, transl. 1885), pp. 378 £f.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish 
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 442 f.; Plumptre, "Ezekiel: An Ideal Biog- 
raphy," Expositor, 1884 ; Kuenen, Modern Review, Oct., 1884, pp. 617-40 ; Kuenen, 
The Hexateuch (transl. from the Dutch, 1886), § 15, 10; H. Sulley, The Temple of 
EzekieVs Prophecy (1888); KiTTEL, Z^w/ory of the Hebrews, Wo\. I (1888-92, transl. 
1895), pp. 125 £f.; F. W. Farrar, "The Last Nine Chapters of Ezekiel," Expositor, 
1889, pp. I £f.; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 
6th ed. 1897), pp. 145 ff., 278-98; KiRKPATRiCK, Doctrine of the Prophets (1892), 

7 Probably from oversight the Feast of Weeks is omitted. 

•J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 127. 



178 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

pp. 320-45 ; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 
1892), see Index; A. B. Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (**Camb. Bible," 
1892); Skinner, ^z<?-^zV/(" Expositor's Bible," 1895); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel 
(1895) pp. 115-30 ; L. B. Paton, Presbyterian and Reformed Review, Jan., 1896, pp. 
98 £f.; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897), pp. 126 ff.; Douglas, 
"Ezekiel's Temple," Expository Times, Vol. IX (1898), pp. 515 £f.; Skinner, article 
"Ezekiel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Wood, article "Hexa- 
teuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899), P- 374; C. H. Toy, The 
Book of the Prophet Ezekiel — A New English Translation (" Sacred Books of the Old 
and New Testaments," Part XII, 1899); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- 
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 126 ff.; C. H. Toy, article "Ezekiel," 
Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexa- 
teuch," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901), coll. 2051 f.; Konig, "The Priests and 
the Levites in Ezek. 44 : 7-15," Expository Times, April, 1901 ; CoBERN, Ezekiel and 
Daniel {igoi). 

Hafenreffer, Templum Ezekiel (1613); E. F. Rosenmuller, Scholia in Vetus 
Testamentum, Pars VI (2d ed. 1826), pp. 575 ff.; ZuNZ, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge 
derfuden (1832, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 165-70 ; J. F. Bottcher, Proben alttestamentlicher 
Schrifterkldrung (1833), pp. 218-365; Havernick, Commentar iiber den Prophet 
Ezechiel (1843); HiTZiG, Der Prophet Ezechiel erkldrt (1847); Balmer-Rinck, Des 
Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1856); Th. Kliefoth, Das Buch Ezechiels 
iibersetzt und erkldrt {i^t^ i.y, Graf, Geschichte der Biicher des alten Bundes {1S66), 
pp. 81-3; KET>iGSTENBERG, Der Prophet Ezechiel (iSSy); Keil, Der Prophet Ezechiel 
(1868, 2d ed. 1882); SCHRADER, article "Ezechiel," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. 
II (1869); ZuNZ, " Bibelkritisches. II: Ezechiel," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor- 
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVII (1873), pp. 676-81 ; Schroder, Das Buch 
Ezechiel ("Langes Bibelwerk," 1873); G. C. Steynis, De Verhouding van de 
Wetgeving bij Ezekiel tot die in den Pentateuch (1873); Graetz, "Die Echtheit des 
Buches des Propheten Ezechiel," Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des 
Judenthums, Vol. XXIII (1874), pp. 433-46, 515-25 ; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch 
der Urgeschichte Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874), pp. 176 ff.; DuHM, Theologie 
der Propheten {i'^']^), pp. 208-II, 216 f., 252-63 ; W6i.DEK.E,Jahrbiicher fiir protes- 
tantische Theologie, 1875, PP- 355 ^m Klostermann, "Ezechiel, ein Beitrag zur 
bessern Wiirdigung seiner Person und seiner Schrift," Theologische Studien und 
Kritiken, 1877, pp. 391-439; Klostermann, "Hat Ezechiel die in Lev. 18-26 am 
deutlichsten erkennbare Gesetzessammlung verfasst ?" Zeitschrift fUr Lutherische 
Theologie, 1877, pp. 406-45 (reprinted in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368 ff.); Smend, 
Der Prophet Ezechiel (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum A. T.," 1880); 
Horst, Lev. 17-26 und Hezekiel {i%%i); E. KuHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel 
der Vollendungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. LV (1882), pp. 601- 
88; CoR-^WA., Der Prophet Ezechiel geschildert {\'i^2)\ Maybaum, Die Entwickelung 
des altisraelitischen Prophetenthums (1883), pp. 38-60 ; P. Wurster, "Zur Charakter- 
istik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetzes," Zeitschrift fiir die 
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IV (1884), pp. 122 f.; Seinecke, Geschichte des 
Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884), pp. 1-20; DiLLMANN, Die Biicher Numeri Deutero- 
nomium und foshua (2d ed. 1886), pp. 644 ff.; CORNiLL, Das Buck des Prophet 
Ezechiel ( 1886); Arndt, Die Stellung Ezechiels in der alttestamentlichen Prophetic ( 1 886); 
Valeton, Viertal Voorlez. over Prophet, des Ouden Verbonds {1SS6); Stade, Geschichte 



LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION I 79 

des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 1-63 ; Orelli, Ezekiel (" Kurzgefasster Com- 
mentar," 1888, 2d ed. 1896); H. Meulenbelt, De Prediking van den Profeet Ezechiel 
(1888); Perrot et Chipiez, Le temple de Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Liban 
restituis d^aprh Ezikiel et le livre des Rois (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das alte 
Testament{ 1 889-90), Vol. II, pp. 1 1 1-26; Knabenbauer, Commeniarius in Ezek. (1890); 
L. Gautier, La mission du prophite Ezekiel {i^gi); Baentzsch, Das Heiligkeitsgesetz 
(1893), pp. 121 £f.; DiESTEL, article " Hesekiel," Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen 
Alterthums, Vol. I (2d ed., 1893); Gaupp, "Die Eigentiimlichkeit des Ezekiel," 
Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Vol. V (1894), pp. 613 £f.; Kamrath, " Der messianische 
Theil des ezech. Proph., besonders in seinen Verhaltnissen zum Hexateuch,"y<3>4r- 
biicher ficr protestantische Theologie, Vol. XVII (1891), pp. 585 £f.; CORNILL, Einlei- 
tung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 77 f., 168-70 ; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des 
Alten Testaments (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 245-57; KONIG, Einleitung in das Alte 
Testament (1893), pp. 354-60; D. H. MiJLLER, Ezechiel-Studien (1895); Bertholet, 
Die Verfassungsentwurf des Hesechiel (1896); Bertholet, Das Buck Hesekiel 
erkldrt (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1897); Dussaud, "Les 
visions d'Ezdkiel," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XIX (1898), pp. 301 fif.; 
Orelli, article "Ezechiel," Realencyklopddie fUr Protestantische Theologieund Kirche, 
Vol. V (3d ed,, 1898); Kraetzschmar, Das Buck Ezechiel Ubersetzt und erkldrt 
(" Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die 
Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 190 ff., 453-71; SCHMALZL, Ezechiel erkldrt 
(" Kurzgefasster wissenschaftl. Commentar," 1901). 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE LEGAL LITERATURE THE PRIESTLY CODE. 

§ 190. The Story of the Adoption of the Law in Ezra's 

Times (§§40-44).^ 

I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this 

Ezra 7: 1,7-9; event occurred : (i) the date of the event :^ (2) the char- 
8:31. ' \ / 

Neh.7:73; 9:1. acter of Ezra and his constituency; (3) the duration of 
8:2iff.;9:5ff. Ezra's journey, March to August ; (4) the gifts and lel- 
8:24-30. ' ters; (5) the work of Nehemiah (§40); (6) the work of 
Ezra (§41). 
Neh., chaps. 8-10. 2. Study the account of the formal adoption, includ- 

ing (i) the place of the assembly; (2) the duration of the 
Neh. 8:3. reading; (3) the circumstances attending the reading; 

Neh. 8:8. (4) the reception given the law by the people; (5) the 

Neh. 8: 9. method of interpretation; (6) the occasion of their 

Neh.8:i3ff. weeping; (7) the reading on the second day in refer- 

ence to the Feast of Booths, and the compliance of the 
Neh. 9: 39; 10:29- people ; (8) the various things which they covenanted to 
Neh! 10:37-39. do (§43); (9) the fact that the priests are clearly distin- 
guished from the Levites (§§ 43, 6S). 
2 Kings 22: 1— 3. Compare the general circumstances of the accept- 

^^■^^* ance of the book of Deuteronomy (§25) with those of 

the acceptance of this book, noting points of similarity 
and difference, d. g., (i) the national assembly; (2) the 
celebration of a feast, in one case the Passover, in the other 

' Ezra's work is probably to be placed after that of Nehemiah ; for the arguments 
in support of this position see Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel {i%<^\ ; transl. into Ger- 
man, 1895); Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and 
Greek Periods, pp. 196 ££.; Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 36-81 ; 
C. C. ToRREY, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65; 
GUTHE, art. " Israel " (§§ 55 £f.), Encyc. Biblica; A. van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes 
sur la restauration juive aprh V exile de Babylone (1896). 

^The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem is placed shortly after 433 B. C. by Kosters and 
Cheyne, Encyc Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1487, and others. Professor van Hoonacker, 
however, places it in the seventh year of Artaxerxes II., viz., 398-7; while Kuenen^ 
Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen IVissenschaft (iSg^), Ed. Meyer, Die Ent- 
stehung des Judenthums (1896), and others retain the date 458 B. C. 

180 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE l8l 

the Feast of Booths, in a manner different from that in 
which they had previously been observed in Canaan. 

4. Consider, now, whether the law adopted thus by 
the people in Ezra's time was (i) the entire Hexateuch 
as we now possess it; or (2) the so-called Holiness 
Code, that is, Lev., chaps. 17-26; or (3) the whole 
Levitical code known as P (§ 43).^ 

5. Consider why, if Ezra brought the law with him 

in 458 B. C, he took no steps to make it known to the Ezra7:i4. 
people until twelve years later, after Nehemiah had come 
(446 or 445 B. C). Is it enough to answer that this was 
delayed by (i) the troublous character of the times Ezra 10: 7. 
which followed the expulsion of the foreign wives ; (2) 
the necessity of Ezra's taking time to acquaint himself 
with the conditions of the country and the adjustment 
of the details of the law to those conditions ; (3) the 
need of such a character as Nehemiah to arouse the 
enthusiasm of the people ? 

§ 191. Representations in P Concerning its Authorship 
{cf. closely § 171). 

I. Read and compare some of the various passages 
in P which refer to its authorship, noting particularly 
the phraseology employed, e. g., (i) "And Jehovah Exod. 25:1. 
spake unto Moses, saying;" (2) "And he gave unto Exod. 31:18. 
Moses the two tables of the testimony, tables of stone, 
written with the finger of God;" (3) "And Moses Exod. 35:1, 4. 
assembled all the congregation of the children of Israel, 
and said unto them ;" (4) "And it came to pass on the Lev. 9:1. 
eighth day, that Moses called Aaron and his sons, and 
the elders of Israel ; and he said unto Aaron ; " (5) "And Lev. 10:8, 12. 
Jehovah spake unto Aaron, saying;" (6) "And Jehovah Lev. nn; 14:33; 
spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying;" (7) "These LeV.'26:46; <:/. 
are the statutes and ordinances and laws, which Jehovah ^^■^^' 
made between him and the children of Israel in Mount 
Sinai by Moses." 

3 This point may well be omitted, except by those who desire to go into the criti- 
cal questions involved ; see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The 
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 138 ff.; HOLZINGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §57; 
Steuernagel, Deuteronornium und Josua (" Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 277 ff.; 
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 405 ff.; the articles on the 
Hexateuch in the various Bible dictionaries ; and the discussions in the many intro- 
ductions to the Old Testament. 



I82 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Numb. 33:2. 



2. Read the interesting passage in which writing is 
ascribed to Moses, and consider whether the contents are 
consistent with an assignment to the times ot Moses. 

3. Take up now, one by one, the suggestions which 
have been offered in explanation of a non-Mosaic author- 
ship, as indicated in § 171 under 2, 3, 4, 5. 

§ 192. Point of View and Coloring of the Priestly Code 
(^/•§i72). 

1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i) 
the representation concerning the plains of Moab as the 
scene of certain legislation concerning Levitical cities; 
(2) the situation at Sinai as the scene of certain events 
and legislation ; (3) the situation in Egypt as the place 
of the initiation of the Passover ; (4) the exact statement 
of the date of departure from Sinai ; (5) the date of the 
ordinances of the tabernacle and of its erection, together 
with the statement that it accompanied Israel through 

^ w'-l'^'-^Numb^' ^^ ^^^ wanderings ; (6) the fact that it looks forward to 
i5;2, 18; 33:51; entrance into Canaan, and introduces legislation appli- 

Lev. 18:3, 27f.; cable only to settled life in Canaan; (7) the warnings 
uttered against practices of Egypt which they had 
known and practices of Canaan which they are to know; 
(8) the allusions to Egypt and Jehovah's deliverance of 
Israel from bondage there; (9) the absence of any men- 
tion of Jerusalem and the temple. 

2. Consider, as bearing further upon this question, 
(i) the regulations against Molech worship; (2) the 
agricultural character of the feasts ; (3) the experiences 
of the exile as depicted in Lev., chap. 26 ; (4) the phrase 
"beyond the Jordan," used of the east side of Jordan; 

(5) the constant reference to Moses in the third person ; 

(6) the apparent distance of Moses and Aaron in the 

narrative Exod. 6 : 26 f., and of the eating of manna in the 

description of the same ; (7) passages in which Israel seems 

to be represented as in possession of the land of Canaan ; 

(8) the significance of the great periods passed over in 

silence (is it not against the supposition that the author 

was a contemporary?), e, g., (a) between Exod. i : 5-7 and 

1 : 13, a period of two or four hundred years ;'* (d) between 

*For an analysis of the text here see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- 
Battersby, TAe Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 80 f., or the commentaries of Dillmann and 
Baentsch. On the historical events see the histories of Kittel, Stade, Wellhausen, Kent. 



Numb. 35:1; 
36:13. 

Numb, i.i; 3:14; 
9:5; Exod. 
24 : 18—25 : 1 . 

Bzod. 12:1. 

Numb. io:iz. 

Bzod. 29 : 46. 
Exod., chaps. 
25 ff., 35-40. 
Exod. 40: 17-38. 



20 : 22 a. 



Lev. 19:34, 36; 
25:21 54; 
Numb. 8:17; 
14:2. 

Lev. 20:1-5. 

Lev., chap. 23; 
Numb., chaps. 
28, 29. 

Numb. 34:15* 
35:14. 

Lev. 7 : 28 ; 8:1; 
9:1, 5f.; 23:1. 



Exod. 16 : 55. 

Lev. 18 : 24 ff. ; 
20 : 23. 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE 1 83 

Numb. 20 : i and 20 : 22^, a period of thirty-eight years 
{cf. 10:11 and 33:37);^ (c) the representation that Dan's Numb. 1:38; 
descendants in the fourth generation numbered 62,700. 
§ 193. The Language and Style of the Priestly Code. 

1. Examine a list of special words and phrases fre- 
quently occurring in this code,* and consider (i) the 
bearing of the fact of such a list upon the question of 
authorship ; does it argue for or against identity of 
authorship with the other books of the Hexateuch ? 
(2) the general character of these expressions as indi- 
cating early or late authorship. Note especially that the Exod. 40:2, 17; 

, 11,1 1 11 , i^"^- 16:39; 

months are numbered rather than named, and that the chap. 23. 

New Year comes in the spring, not in the autumn. 

When did this method of enumeration prevail ? 

2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities 

appearing in the book, /. <f., peculiar forms, idioms, etc., c/., e. g.. Lev. 

1 . , , , , , ., . . -i r . . 18:23 with 

and consider whether these exhibit evidence of antiquity Ezek. 20:5, 7, 

of date, or of late date. With what writer in the Old with Ezek.' 

42 : 20, 

Testament does the Priestly Code show the largest num- 
ber of similarities ? 

3. Consider (i) the general style of the Priestly Code, 
viz., stereotyped, repetitious, statistical, rigid, prosaic, 
precise, systematic ; (2) the striking points of style which 
distinguish this code from other portions of the Hexa- 
teuch and, indeed, from other Old Testament writings, 
viz., (a) legal, (d) imperative, (c) idealistic.^ 

§ 194. The Material of the Priestly Code as Bearing on 
the Date and Authorship. 

I. Examine the great number of repetitions of laws 
found in other portions of the Pentateuch and within P 
itself {e. g., Exod., chaps. 25-28 and 35-40 ; Lev. 3 : 5- 

5 See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 28. 

* Extensive lists of the various linguistic phenomena of the Priestly Code are to 
be found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, 
pp. 208-21; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §§43, 44, 51,58; Addis, 
Documents of the Hexateuch, \o\. II, pp. 1 70-73; BvUGGS, Higher Criticism of the 
Hexateuch, pp. 172-80 ; Ryssel, De Elohistae Pentateuchi Sermone (1878); GlESE- 
brecht, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die 
alttesiamentliche Wissenchaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276 ; TiRiWEK, Journal of Philology, 
Vol. XI, pp. 201-36. 

7 On literary style of P see the articles byW. R. Harper in Hebraica, Vols. V, VI. 



1 84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

4 : 35 and chap. i8; 19 : 3^, 30 and 26 : 2 ; 19:9 and 
23:22; 19:26^ and 17:10-14; 24:21 and 24:17; 
18 : 6-23 and 20 : 10-21 ; Lev., chap. 8; Exod. 30 : i — 
31 : II, and Numb., chap. 8), and consider (i) how these 
repetitions may be accounted for upon the supposition 
that all portions of the Hexateuch had their origin 
within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ; (2) 
how these repetitions may be explained upon the suppo- 
sition of three or more distinct codes of law, which 
originated as codifications of teachings and usages that 
had grown up through many centuries. 

2. Examine passages which seem to furnish instances 
of discrepancy and variation between P and other legisla- 
tion (e. g.f the differences in the lists of "clean and 
unclean " as given in Lev., chap. 1 1, and Deut., chap. 14 ; 
the variations in the details of the structure of the ark of 
the covenant as described in Exod. 25:10; 37:1; 40:20, 
and Deut., chap. 9; 10:1, 3, 5; the representation of 
the tabernacle as located within the camp in Exod., 
chaps. 25-29, but without the camp in Exod. 33 : 7 ; 
Numb. II : 24-30; 12:4; 10:33 — all E passages; the 
law of the altar as given in Exod. 20 : 24 (E) and the 
totally different altar provided for in Exod., chaps. 25- 
29 ; the law of slaves. Lev. 25 : 39-42, cf. Exod. 21 : 1-6 
(E) and Deut. 15:12; the regulations concerning the 
priest as found in Deuteronomy and in the Priestly 
Code — see §§62, 63, and 68, 69), and consider (i) how 
these discrepancies may be accounted for upon the sup- 
position that all portions of the Hexateuch had their 
origin within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ; 
{2) how they may be explained upon the supposition of 
three or more distinct codes of law, which originated as 
codifications of teachings and usages that had grown up 
through many centuries. 

3. Examine the narratives relating to the tabernacle, 
Exod., chaps. viz., (a) the directions for its erection and decoration ; 
Exod., Chaps. (^) ^^^ record of its erection and decoration ; and in the 

35"4°- study of these narratives consider the following ques- 

tions : (i) are the representations concerning the taber- 
nacle in the wilderness consistent with each other ?^ 
* See Carpenter and Harford.-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 52, 129. 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I 85 

(2) What is the significance of the fact that the first state- Exod. 33:7. 
ment made represents the tent as in actual use before it 
was constructed ?' (3) What are the various names by 
which the tent is designated in the several docu- 
ments ? *° (4) To what extent do the various codes 
describe a different service in connection with it?" (5) 
Is it possible to understand this representation as an 
ideal one, and as corresponding to the prophetic pic- 
tures of the future ? 

§ 195. Structure and Contents of the Priestly Code. 

T. Consider the extent to which the P history and 
legislation constitute the basis on which the entire 
Hexateuch rests, or the framework into which the rest of 
the material is fitted. 

2. Compare the relation of the P legislation to the 
P history with that of the Deuteronomic legislation to 
the Deuteronomic historical setting. 

3. Consider (i) whether there are not to be found Lev.yia?!; 

11:46!.; 13:59; 
formulae which mark the end of small codes and, conse- 16:34; etc. 

quently, (2) whether the P legislation is not made up of 

several separate collections of laws, e. g.: (a) Lev., chaps. 

17-26; (3) Lev., chaps. 1-7; (c) Exod., chaps. 25-28; 

(^) Exod., chaps. 35-40; (e) Lev., chap. 11 ; (/) Lev., 

chaps. 13, 14; (g) Lev., chap. 15; (h) Numb., chaps. 

28-36. 

4. Examine the contents and character of P^, so 
called because it forms the historical groundwork of the 
entire P legislation, considering (i) its central theme, 
viz., Jehovah's purpose from the creation of the world to 
develop and train Israel as his peculiar people, and the 
means and institutions employed by him to accomplish 

this purpose; (2) the extent of the ground covered, viz.. Gen. 1:1; josh, 
from the creation to the establishment of the nation 



chaps. 14 ff. 



9 The account of the construction of the tabernacle is given by P (= Exod., 
chaps. 35-40) as having taken place after the arrival at Sinai ; vi^hile E in Exod. 33 : 7 
speaks of " the tent of meeting " as a familiar institution of the camp. 

"See Exod. 33:7 (E); Exod. 25 :8 (P) ; Exod. 25 :9 (P) ; Numb, ii :24<J (E); 
9:15 (P); Exod. 39:32 (P); 35: II (P) ; the name does not occur in J or Deuter- 
onomy. 

" See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 55. 



I86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Oen.2:4;5:x; (3) the logical presentation, viz., (a) the toledhoth sec- 

etc. tions leading up to the Sinaitic revelation ; {f) the work 

Gen., chap. 17. ^^ Moses in the deliverance from Egypt ; (c) the special 

Josh., chaps. 14 ff. covenant between Jehovah and Israel; {d) the settlement 

of Abraham's descendants in Palestine ; (4) the character 

of all this as compared with the similar narrative of J, 

especially the differences which characterize it, such as 

the emphasis placed upon religious institutions, the lack 

of the personal element." 

5. Consider now the great passage which stands apart 
and constitutes P^ that is, the Holiness Code, taking up 
Lev. 26:3-45; 18: (i) certain peculiar exhortations, which are intended to 
2-4I 10, 12, 14,' emphasize the idea of holiness^ and the deity of Jehovah 
32^6 ;'22: 31-33! who led Israel out of Egypt; (2) certain laws which do 
not seem to be consistent with other parts of P; (3) 
other peculiarities of the form and contents ; ^^ (4) the 
probability of the independence of this section, and in 
this connection («) the question as to the origin of this 
material, {f) its self-consistency, {c) the amount of edi- 
torial work which has been connected with it; (5) other 
passages which seem to show the same peculiarities ; "* 
(6) the question of date, distinguishing {a) the regula- 
tions of which it is composed, {S) the hortatory frame- 
work, and examining in detail the forms of the various 
laws with reference to their sociological setting. 
Nj^^-.s: 5— 6. Consider in the same general manner the portions 

assigned to P*, that is, priestly teaching (torah), which 
treat especially of sacrifice, clean and unclean, and simi- 
lar topics. '5 
^4o^*38fetZ 7- Consider, likewise, the portions assigned to P% that 

"For further consideration of P^^ see chap. XV. 

^^E. g., a different style and phraseology (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 49 ff.) ; 
a parenetic framework unknown to other parts of P ; repetitions of laws found else- 
where in P ; commands addressed to the people, not to the priest as in P. 

^4 Scholars differ somewhat as to the limits of the Holiness Code ; e. g., Driver 
{Introduction, p. 151) assigns to P**: Lev., chaps. 17-26 ; Exod. 6 : 6-8 ; 12:12; 31:13- 
14a,* Lev. 10:9a, 10; 11:44; Numb. 15:37-41; Kv>T>\^ {Documents of the Hexateuch, 
Vol. II, p. 178): Lev., chaps. 17-26; 11:43-45; Numb. 15:37-41; Carpenter AND 
Harford-Battersby {op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 145): Lev., chaps. 17-26; Exod. 31: 13, 14a,- 
Numb. 10:9; 15:38(^-41. 

'S For a statement of the limits and character of P* see Carpenter and Harford- 
Battersby, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 152 f.; and for a similar statement concerning P^ see 
the same work. Vol. I, pp. 153-5. 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I87 

is, certain secondary expansions along many lines, tending 
toward " the heightening of ritual and the elaboration of 
detail." 

§ 196. The Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to the 
Priestly Code. — The question as to the relation of the 
scheme of legislation contained in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, 
to that of the Priestly Code, and especially the Holiness 
Code, is one of especial interest, and has been the 
occasion of much discussion. Nothing more can be 
attempted here than to indicate the nature of the prob- 
lem and the various lines of investigation. 

1. Examine lists'^ of the phraseological and linguis- 
tic affinities existing between P and Ezek., chaps. 40-48* 
and consider whether they are to be accounted for on the 
supposition (i) that Ezekiel was especially fond of, and 
thoroughly familiar with, the P legislation, and drew up 
his scheme on the basis of it; or (2) that Ezek., chaps. 
40-48, served as a model for the authors of P and was 
largely drawn upon by them ; or (3) that Ezekiel was 
the author of the Holiness Code ; or (4) that Ezek., 
chaps. 40-48, and the earlier parts of P originated at 
about the same time, were both influenced largely by the 
earlier existing legislation, and were both actuated by a 
similar spirit and motive. 

2. Consider from the same point of view the similar 

regulations found in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and in P; Ezek. 44: 10-15 ;</. 

,x,,..., ,T. Numb., chaps. 

e,g.^ (i) the distinction between priests and Levites ; 1-4- 

(2) the emphasis laid upon the necessity of ceremonial Lev., chaps* 15I 

"cleanness;" (3) the close similarity of the laws con- Ezek. 44*: 17-37; 

cerning the priests; (4) the large ritualistic element 22:16.*"*' 

common to both; (5) the special sanctity of the sabbath; Ezek.' 20: 12.* 

(6) the predominance in both of the re/i'gwus element^ 

almost to the exclusion of secular matters; (7) the great Ezek. 40:5-43:12; 

,.,.,,,, , f/.Exod., chaps. 

emphasis laid by both upon the sanctuary. 25-29 and 35-40. 

3. Consider, further, the points of difference between 

the two schemes of legislation, e.g., (i) in P the priests Ezek. 44:15; «•/. 
are sons of Aaron, in Ezekiel sons of Zadok ; (2) the Lev.2i:io. 
high-priest occupies a large place in P, but is not men- 
tioned in Ezekiel; (3) the function of "the prince" is Ezek.46:aff. 

^*See, <f. g., Driver, Introduction^ pp. 130-35, 145-9; Smend, Der Prophet 
Ezechiel (1880), pp. xxv-xxviii. 



1 88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

^Bze^^^'\lif^' P^^^^^^r to Ezekiel ; (4) the legislation for the Day of 

Ezek., chaps. 45, Atonement is unknown to Ezekiel; (s) the assiefnment 
48; c/. Numb. ' ^-^^ ° 

35: 1-8; Josh, of property to the priests is radically different, the scheme 

Ezek. 45: 21-25; of Ezekiel having no parallel in this respect; (6) the 

23; Numb., legislation concerning feasts differs in many details ; (7) 

Lev, chap. 25; Ezekiel knows nothing^ of a sabbatical year, or Year of 

26 : 34 f . ; 27 : 17- ° -^ ' 

24; f/. Ezek. Jubilee, upon which P lays great emphasis; (8) in gen- 
eral, the legislation of P is much more detailed and 
elaborate than that of Ezekiel. What is the bearing of 
these and other differences upon the answer to the ques- 
tions suggested above ? 

§ 197. The Principal Ideas of the Priestly Code. 

1. Consider that, for the most part, the Priestly Code 
is not didactic, as is Deuteronomy, but is rather a manual 
of religious customs and practices. To what extent, 
however, does it give concrete expression to certain 
great conceptions which lay at the basis of all its regula- 
tions, and were deeply impressed upon the minds and 
hearts of the worshipers as they participated in the 
ceremonies prescribed by it ? 

2. For a general statement concerning the ideas of 
P, see § 49. For the P material on the priest, see §§ 68, 
69 ; on the place of worship, see §§ 79, 80; on sacrifice, 
see §§ 91, 92 ; on feasts, see §§ 103, 104 ; on the sabbath, 
see §§ 117, 118; on clean and unclean, see §§ 131, 132. 

3. In an effort to discover the chief ideas of the 
Priestly Code consideration must be paid, not only to 
specific statements that may be found in the text, but 
also to the general tone and character of the material as 
a whole and to the amount of attention given to the 
various features of the system of worship: (i) The idea 
of God here reaches the highest plane attained in the 

i^^-> chap.i6; Old Testament. He is a Being so great, so holy,,so 
Lev., chaps. 21, awful, that access to him is permitted only under the 
most stringent conditions and always through the media- 
tion of a specially consecrated priest ; into his inmost 
presence only one man in the entire nation, viz., the 
holiest man — the high-priest — may come, and that but 
Lev. 4:1—6:7; once a year. (2) In the light of this unapproachable 
6:24—7:10. holiness, the blackness of sin is immeasurably intensified ; 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I 89 

he cannot look upon sin witn the least degree of allow- 
ance ; his holiness, pervading everything, is in constant 
danger of violation ; hence the possibilities of sin are 
greatly multiplied. Sin was the cause of all of Israel's Lev. 26:3-45. 
calamities in the past ; hence, in order to insure Jehovah's 
favor and blessing for the future, every precaution must 
be taken to avoid sin, and to make propitiation to him 
when sin is unavoidable or for any reason has been com- 
mitted. (3) The holy God demands a correspondingly l«v. 11:44!.; 
holy people who shall honor him with a holy worship. 21 : 7 'f.; 32:33.' 
It is the purpose of the P legislation to secure this end. 
This explains the great emphasis laid upon (4) ritual Lev., chaps. 8, 
and ceremony. Everything is carefully prescribed and 
intrusted to the execution of the priests whose especial 
function it is to guide and lead the people in the pres- 
entation of an acceptable worship unto Jehovah. (5) 
Religion has become the great business of life ; it has 
stepped in and occupied the place formerly held by 
national politics and ambitions. (6) The exalted con- 
ception of Jehovah and the necessity of constant propi- Lev., chap. 33. 
tiatory rites have completely done away with the joyous 
abandon of the worship of early days, and the spirit of 
confidence and fellowship has been largely replaced by 
that of reverence and godly fear. 

§ 198. Literature to be Consulted. 

CoLENSO, The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Critically Examined {^ parts; 
1862-69); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 5th ed. 1897; 
transl. from German 1885), pp. 374-91, 404-10; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol. 
XI (1882), pp. 201-36; KUENEN, An Historico-Critical Enquiry into the Origin of the 
Hexateuch {\%%^,\xzxi'&\. 1886); BissELL, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure: 
An Examination of Recent Theories {iZ%^)', Vi.iTT'E'L, History of the Hebrews {l^^^, 
transl. 1895), Vol. I, pp. 96-132 ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, Hebraica, Vols. 
V-VIII (1888-91); W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1889, 2d 
ed. 1892); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (i 891, 6th ed. 
1897), PP- 42-59, 126-59; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1892, 2d 
ed. 1897), pp. 108 f., 172-80, 233 ff.; Paton, "The Relation of Lev. XX to Lev. 
XVII-XIX," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), PP- 111-21; B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradi- 
tion of the Exodus {\%^/\,)\ Driver and V^ hit's., Leviticus ("Sacred Books of the Old 
and New Testaments;" Hebrew text 1894, English transl. 1898); W. H. Green, 
The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895); Paton, "The Holiness Code and 
Ezekiel," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1896, pp. 98-115; Konig, Expositor, 
August, 1896, p. 97; Paton, "The Original Form of Lev. X'j-if),'' Journal of Biblical 



1 90 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Literature, 1897, pp. 31-7; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 
170-91; F. H.Woods, art. "Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 
II (1899), pp. 368-71 ; Paton, "The Original Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 21 and 22," 
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1899), pp. 149-75; Idem, "The Original 
Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 23, 25," ibid.. Vol. XVIII (1899), pp. 35-60; J. E.. Car- 
penter AND G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch (1900), Vol. I, pp. 121-57; 
Wellhausen, art. " Hexateuch," §§ 29 f., Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); 
H. G. Mitchell, The World before Abraham (1901), pp. 17 £f., 29 ff., 58 ff.; Kent 
AND Sanders, " The Growth of Israelitish Law," in Biblical and Semitic Studies by the 
Members of the Semitic and Biblical Faculty of Yale University (1901), pp. 41-90; 
G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902); G. B. Gray, 
art. "Law Literature," ibid. 

E. Bertheau, Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze in den drei mittleren Biichern 
des Pentateuchs (1840); J. Popper, Der biblische Bericht iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862); 
Merx, " Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die Opfergesetze, Lev. I-VII," Zeitschrift fUr 
wissenschaftliche Theologie, Vol. VI (1863), pp. 41-84, 164-81; Graf, Die geschicht- 
lichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. 
I (1887), pp. 62 ff.; NoLDEKE, Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); Noldeke, 
Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (1869), pp. 1-144; Kuenen, "De 
priesterlike Bestanddeelen van Pentateuch en Josua," Theologisch Tijdschrift, VoL 
IV (1870), pp. 391-426, 492-500; KplYS^vl, Das vorexilische Buch der Ur geschichte 
Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874); Hofmann, "Einheit und Integritat der 
Opfergesetze Lev. i-'j,^^ Magazin fiir Wissenschaft des Judenthums,iZ']*j ; Kloster- 
MANN, " Ezechiel und das Heiligkeits-Gesetz," Zeitschrift fiir luth. Theologie und 
Kirche, 1877, pp. 406-44 (republished in Der Pentateuch, i^g2>i PP' 368-418); Bleek- 
Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1878); von Ryssel, De Elohistae 
Pentateuchi Sermone{i?)'j^) ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des altisraelitischen Priester- 
^i^«wj (1880), pp. 74 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft 
und kirchliches Leben,Vol.\{\%%i), pp. 617-26; HoKST, Leviticus XVII-XX VI und 
HezeJiiel (iSSi) ; Giesebrecht, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," 
Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; P. WuR- 
STER, " Zur Charakteristik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetz," 
ibid. ,Vol.lV (1884), pp. 112-33; DiLLMANN, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium 
und Josua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 2d ed. 
1886), pp. 593-690; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der histori- 
schen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1899); Westphal, Les sources du 
Pentateuque{\^%%, 1892); ^lEnu, Einleitung in das Alte Testament {iSSg); Steinthal, 
Zeitschrift fUr Volker-Psychologie, Vol.X.'K (1890), pp. 54 ff.; CoKNiLL, Einleitung in 
das Alte Testament {iSgi, S^ ed. 1896), pp. 56-86; KONIG, Theologische Studien und 
Kritiken, 1893, PP- 464-8, 478; Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar 
de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German transl. 1895), §20; Holzinger, 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), PP* 332-475; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte 
Testament (1893), §48; Baentsch, Das Heiligkeits-Gesetz (1893); Meyer, Die 
Entstehung des Judenthums {iKgb),^)^. 20%-iS\ Wellhausen, Die Composition des 
Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testaments {2,6. ed. iSgg) ; GUTHE, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel {\%gg), pp. 259 f.; Steuernagel, Ueberseizung und 
Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua und allgemeine Einleitung in den 
Hexateuch {^'^zxid\ioma\&^\.zx zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; Hali^vy, 



LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE IQI 

"Influence du code sacerdotal sur les proph^tes," Revue simitiqucy January, 1901; 
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alien Testamentes {igoi), §§ 31, 41-4, SO-55. 
See also the commentaries on Exodus by Dillmann (1897), Holzinger (1900), 
Baentsch (1900), and Kennedy ("The Temple Bible," 1901) ; and on Leviticus by 
Kalisch (1867), Keil (2d ed. 1870), Lange (1874), Strack (1894), Dillmann- 
Ryssel (1897), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1901), and Paterson ("The Temple 
Bible," 1901). 



Paet Fifth 



THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HISTORICAL 
LITERATURE 

XV. The Priestly Narrative in the Hexateuch. 
XVL The Books of Chronicles. 
XVIL The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. 



CHAPTER XV. 

HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE IN THE HEXATEUCH. 

§199. The New Tendency Encouraged in the Exile. — 
Consider (i) the effect of the exile upon the ambition of isa. 57:17-20. 
Israel to be a nation among other nations of the earth ; 

(2) the actual condition, in the exile, of all political 2Cbron.35:i7-2i. 
institutions and political machinery; (3) the certainty isa. 41 : 17-20. 
that under these conditions the minds of the leaders 

and the energies of the people would be turned in some 

other direction: (4) the naturalness and, indeed, the Ezek., chaps. 

^ ^^' ' ' 40-48. 

inevitableness of a turning in the direction of a more 

definitely religious, as distinguished from a political, 

regime; (5) the foundation for this movement already isa. 44:24-28. 

prepared in the two great doctrines of individualism, as 

preached by the priest Jeremiah, and solidarity, as Jer. 3i:29f. 

preached by the priest Ezekiel — doctrines preached in Ezek., chaps. x8, 

view of and in connection with the fall of the nation. 

See J. R. Slater, " Individualism and Solidarity as Developed 
by Jeremiah and Ezekiel," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 
172-83; MONTEFIORE, Zf^/«r<?j <?« the Origin and Growth of Reli- 
gion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews, pp. 2 1 6-1 9, 
251-3; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 488 f. 

§200. The Basis of This Tendency toward Priestly 
Influence. — Observe now three thine^s : (i) that the 2 Kings 22:3— 

^ ' 23 :52. 

priestly influence had long been in existence, and that 

only a century or so before the fall of Jerusalem it had 

been greatly strengthened by the union of effort in which 

prophet and priest joined, and of which the promulgation 

of Deuteronomy was the result {cf. §§25-8, 170); (2) jer. 1:1; Ezek. 

that the prophetic work in these last days had in large ^'^' 

measure fallen to priests, e. g., Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; 

(3) that, inasmuch as the will of God had now been pre- 
sented so clearly in the prophetic word (for prophecy had 
practically completed its work, having reached its highest 
development in Jeremiah) and in the written law (the 2 Kings 22: 3; 
law as found in Deuteronomy having been canonized in *^'^* 

195 



196 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Deut. 10:8. 



Exod. 20:23— 
23:33; Deut. 
chaps. 16-26. 



Ezek., chaps. 
40-48. 



Mai. 1:6-14; 

Zech. i4:i6ff. 
Leviticus. 



Hag. 1:7-14; 
2:1-9; Zech. 
6:9-14. 



r/.P (below). 



Cf. Chronicles. 



621 B. C), the task that remained was not so much the 
revelation of new truth as the interpretation, organi- 
zation, and application of the great body of truth 
already known. Such ministration was the work of the 
priest. 

§201. The Origin of the Idea of the Church or Com- 
munity. — Consider now to what extent the idea and 
practice of the community or church (i) were the further 
development of the priestly conception and ritual which 
existed before the exile and were formulated during the 
exile by Ezekiel in his visions ; (2) were the direct 
outcome of the prophetic teaching of individualism and 
solidarity (see § 199); and still further (3) were the neces- 
sary result of the historical forces which combined to 
destroy the nation and put an end to prophetic work and 
leadership. 

§202. The Purpose of the Church. — (i) Study, as 
widely as possible (<f. g., in Ezekiel's code, the Levitical 
code, and the priestly prophets), the purpose of the 
church as it now began to take the place of the nation, 
as that purpose exhibited itself {a) in the emphasis placed 
on worship, {b) in the multiplication of ordinances seek- 
ing to preserve, organize, and develop the ritual of the 
temple; and (2) consider how greatly such interest 
(already existing in the exile) would be strengthened 
when the return had taken place, the temple had been 
rebuilt, and worship had actually been established in the 
new environment. 

§203. The Desire to Prepare Histories of Worship. — 
Consider how, under these circumstances, there would 
come into existence the desire (i) to trace the beginnings 
of these ordinances to the earliest times, and to show 
the place assigned them under the great leaders of the 
past ; (2) to write a narrative which would present their 
history through the long centuries from David's time 
down to the last days — a story parallel with that other 
narrative (prepared by the prophets who had now passed 
away) which, in representing prophetic truth, had almost 
entirely ignored the priest-side of the national history; 
and (3) to show just how these institutions were finally 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE I97 

reinstated or re-established after the return by the e^reat c/. Ezra and 

•^ Nehemiah. 

leaders Ezra and Nehemiah. This desire found its reali- 
zation in what we may call the histories of the priestly 
school. 

§ 204. The Histories of the Prophetic School. — Recall 
(i) the history of J, the work of a Judean prophet, prob- 6611.2:4(5—4:26; 
ably the oldest of the prophetic histories, which gathers 
up the stories and traditions of the earliest times down 
to the settlement of Israel in Canaan and uses all this 
material for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing 

the truths of prophecy:* (2) the history of E, which Gen. 15:1,5,16; 

• iV r J T 1- • • r chap. 20; etc. 

covers practically the same ground as J, but is written from 

the point of view of northern Israel, and is somewhat less 

naive in its conception of God and in respect to other 

theological ideas;- (3) the histories found in Judges, 

Samuel, and Kings, which trace the progress of the 

nation from the conquest to the exile ; and note the 

principal characteristics, common to them all, viz.: 

(a) that they are in large part compilations of older aSam. 1:18; 

material; ib) the emphasis laid by them upon the 14:29; 2 king's 

^ -^ ^ 15:26; etc. 

thought of sin as the cause of all of Israel's troubles ; 2 Kings, chap. 24. 

(c) the purpose of their work as evidently didactic, 

rather than historical in the modern sense of the word ; 

* The J- material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is: 2:4^^ — 4:26; 5:29; 6:1-8; 7:1-5, 
7-10, 12, 173, 22 f.; 8 :2<5, 3a, 6-12, 13^, 20-22; 9:18-27; 10: lb, 8-19, 21,24-30; 
11:1-9,28-30; 12:1-4^,6-20; 13:1-5,6/^11^,13-18; 15 : 3 f., 6-1 1, 17 f.; 16:1*, 
2,4-14; 18:1 — 19:28,30-38; 21 : la, 2a, 7, 28-30, 33; 22:20-24; 24:1 — 25:6, 
18, 2i-26a, 28; 26:1-3^, 6-14, 16 f., 19-33; 27:1a, 2,3, 4(5, lb, 6, 7a, 15, i8(5-20, 
24-29^, 29^, 30a, 30c, 31^34. 41M2, 43^ 45^/ 28 : 10, 13-16, 19 ; 29 : 2-14, 31-35 ; 
30:3^-16, 22c, 23a, 24 f., 27, 29-3ia, 34-38^, 39-40a, 40<:-43; 31 :i. I7» i8a, 25, 27, 
31, 43 £., 46, 48-50; 32:3-7^, 133-22^, 23^29, 31 f.; 33:i-i8a,- 34-2b,3a,3c,S, 7, 
II, 19, 26, 293-31; 35:14,16-225/ 36:31-39; 37:23, 2^-4, 12, 13a, 143,183,21, 
253-27, 283, 32a, 35 ; 38 : I — 39 : 63, 'jb-23. The remainder of the document may be 
found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, T/ia Hexateuch, Vol. II ; 
or in Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I ; or in Driver, Introduction to the 
Literature of the Old Testament. 

'The E-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is: 15 : i, 2, 5, 16; 20: 1-18; 21 :6, 8-27, 
31 f., 34 ; 22 : I-13, 19 ; 25 : 253, 27, 29-34 ; 27 : i3, 4a, 7'^I4. l6-l8a, 21-23, 3o3, 31^^, 
35-415, 44, 453/ 28:iif., 17 f., 20, 215, 22; 29:1,15-23,25-285,30; 30:1-35,17- 
20, 26, 313-33, 383, 403/ 31:2-16, 19-24,26,28-30,32-42,47,51—32:2,235,30; 
33:18^-20; 35:1-5,63-8; 37:5-11,133,145, 173, 19 f., 22-255, 285, 28(r-3i, 323, 335, 
34, 36; 39:6/:, 75/ 40: 1-23. For the remainder of the document see literature cited 
in the foregoing footnote. 



198 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(d) the selection and arrangement of material, which is 
such as to enforce the great lessons of prophecy. 

§205. The Priestly Histories. — Under this head may 
be classified (i) the priestly narrative in the Hexateuch; 
(2) the books of Chronicles, which furnish a parallel 
history, as understood by the priest, for the entire 
period covered by the prophetic history found in 
s«e ?204. Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and (3) the books of 

Ezra and Nehemiah, which describe the restoration from 
exile and the re-establishment of the temple and its 
elaborate system of worship. These all possess the same 
general characteristics of style, are controlled by the 
same theological ideas, are interested in the same general 
subject, and are written from the same priestly point of 
view. 

§206. The Historical Character of the Priestly His- 
tories. — Keep in mind (i) the purpose of these so-called 
histories, viz., to represent the priest-side, that is, the 
element of worship ; (2) the consequent necessity of 
making selections from the large body of material in 
existence; (3) the fragmentary and disconnected char- 
acter of the material which comes by selection ; (4) the 
only method that, under these circumstances, can be 
employed — that of compilation; (5) the danger of 
confusion and disorder ; (6) the certainty that material 
having its origin centuries after the event described will 
not be intended to serve as a chronicle of the event, but 
rather to meet some definite and practical end in view; 
(7) the difference between actual history and idealized 
story; (8) the meaning of the word ''pragmatic" as 
applied to history. 

See, e. g., my article in Sunday School Times, July, 1889 ; Geo. 
F. Moore, art. " Historical Literature," Encylopcedia Biblica, Vol. 
II; W. E. Barnes, "The Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," 
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIII 
(1896-97), pp. 14-20 ; T. G. Scares, "The Import of the Chronicles 
as a Piece of Religio-Historical Literature," American Journal of 
Theology, Yo\. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; C. C. Torrey, The Composi- 
tion and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemia ("Beiheft zur Zeitschrift 
fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,'' II, 1896); L. DiESTEL, "Die 
hebraische Geschichtesschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theo- 
logic, Yo\. XVIII (1873), PP- 365 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE I 99 

Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift 
fiir lutherische Theologie und Kircke, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff.; 
J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His- 
torians (1901), pp. 241 ff., 271 ff. 

§ 207. The Scope of the Priestly Narrative. — This 
document is found alongside of the prophetical histories 
J and E in the Hexateuch.^ Like them it goes back to 
the time of creation and sketches the course of events vj^n ^.— 2:4a/ 

Josh., chaps. 14, 

up to the settlement of Israel in Canaan. This leads it 15, 17. etc. 
in many cases to duplicate the narratives of the pro- 
phetic historians: but, althous^h the same events are Gen. 34:1,2a, 3^, 
r 1 . , , , ^ . . 4, 6. 8-10. 12-18, 
often narrated in both accounts, the point or view is 20-25, 27-a9«/ 

widely different, since the purposes of the two schools s,'?, n, 19, etc! 
of writers are of a different character. The priestly nar- 
rative is primarily concerned with questions like {a) the 
divine choice of Israel as the peculiar people of God ; 
(3) the divine origin of her system of worship ; {c) the 
growth of the accompanying institutions and customs. 

§ 208. The Gradual Growth of the Priestly Narrative. — 
A careful examination of this priestly narrative reveals 
that it is not all the work of one hand or one time, but, 
like the prophetic histories, is a compilation of older 
materials, which have gradually been brought together 
and wrought into a homogeneous narrative. This ap- 
pears {a) from the fact that there are many repetitions 

3 The material belonging to the priestly narrative, as indicated in The Hexateuch^ 
by J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, is as follows : Gen. i: i — 2 : 4a/ 
5:1-28, 30-32; 6:9-22; 7:6, II, 13-17^, 18-21, 24; 8:1, 2a, 3/5-5, 13^, 14-19; 
9:1-17, 28, 29; 10:1^,2-7,20,22,23,31,32; 11:10-27, 31,32; I2:4<5, 5; 13:6a, 
\\b, 12; 16: la, 3, 15, 16; 17 : 1-27; 19 :29; 2\'.\b, 2.b-^\ 23: 1-20 ; 25 :7-l7, 19,20, 
2tib; 26:34,35; 27:46—28:9; 29:24,28^,29; 30:21,22a/ 31:18^,- 33: i8<5/ 
34 : I-2a, lb, 4, 6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 27-29a; 35 : 6a, 9-13, 15, 22<5— 36 : 30, 40-43 ; 
37:1, 2a, 2r,- 41:45^, 46a,- 46:6-27; 47 : 5, 6a, 7-1 1, 27^, 28; 48:3-?; 49 = l«» 
28-33^. 33^/ 50:12, 13; Exod. 1:1-5, 7.13. ^^b; 2:233-25; 6:2—7:13, 19, 20a, 
21^,22; 8:5-7,15(^19; 9:8-12; 11:9 — 12:20,24,28,40 — 13:2,20; 14:1-4,8, 
9(5, 153, i6(5-i8, 2ia, 2IC-23, 26, 27a, 28a, 29; 16:1-3, 5-35; 17:1a,- 19:1, 2a, 
24: i5(5-i8a,- 25:1 — 3i:i8a,' 34:29 — 40:38; Lev. i:l — 27:34; Numb. i:i — 
10:28, 34; I3:i-I7a, 21(5, 25, 26a, 32; 14:1a, 2, 5-7, 9a, 10, 26-30, 32-39«. 
15:1-41 ; 16 : la, 1(5, Q.b, 3-II, 16-24, 26a, 27a, 32(5, 33^, 35— 20: la, 2, 3(5, 4, 6-8a, 
8<:-i 3, 223-29; 21:4a, 10, I la,- 22:1; 25:6—32:38; 33:1—36:13; Deut. 32 : 48-52; 
34 : la, \c, Sd, 7-9 ; Josh. 3 :4a, 8, 15, 16; 4 : 7(5, 8a, 13, 15-17, 19 ; 5 : 10-12 ; 9 : 15^, 
17-21; 13:15 — 14:5; 15:1-12,20-61* 16:4-9; 17:1-10; 18:1, II — 19:46,48 — 
21:42; 22:9-34. 



200 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Exod., chaps. 25- within the priestly narrative itself, e. g., the repetition of 

Numb., chaps, the account of the structure of the tabernacle, the double 

1-3, c/. 26; Lev., 

chap. 23, c/. account of the census of Israel, the two recensions of 

Numb., chaps. 

28,29. the laws concerning feasts, etc.; and {0) from the differ- 

ent tone and character of various parts of the narrative. 
It is now generally granted that there are at least four 
different strata in this work. These are (i) a continuous 
narrative from the creation to the settlement in Canaan, 
which forms the groundwork of the priestly narrative 
Lev., chaps. 17-26. (=P&); (2) the Holiness Code (=P^): (3) a collection 

Numb.i5:i-3i; \ . , ,. ,. -. . , , 

etc. or priestly teachings on subjects connected with the 

Exod. 30: 22— various institutions (=P*); (4) "a miscellaneous set 

^^*"' ' of secondary enlargements, ranging over a wide variety 
of topics — genealogical expansions, legislative elabora- 
tions, illustrative narratives, etc."( = P^). 

See, e. g.,]. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, Tke 
Hexateuch^ Vol. I, pp. 142 £f.; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch^ 
Vol. II, pp. 186 £f.; HoLZiNGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 
332 ff.; ST^Xi'E.Vi'iiAG'E'L, Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch, p. 272; Baudissin, Einleitung in die 
BUcher des Alien Testamentes,-pY>- I54ff«; Wellhausen, /Vc>/^^c»;«^«a 
to the History of Israel, p. 385. 

§209. The Sources of the Priestly Narrative. — (i) 

Gen. 6:5-8; Examine carefully some of the narratives contained in 

7:1-5, 7-10, -^ 

etc. ;f/. 6: 9-22; both the prophetic history and in the priestly narrative, 

e. g.j the accounts of the deluge, the story of Dinah,* 
the bringing of water from the rock in the wilderness,^ 
etc., and consider whether the prophetic and priestly 
writers are to be regarded (a) as having used the same 
sources, or (3) as having used different sources, or (c) 
as being dependent one upon the other; if the latter, 
which is the original ? 

(2) Consider, further, whether it is probable that any 
sources other than popular traditions were ever in exist- 
ence for the study of the earliest prehistoric times. In 
cases where the priestly and prophetic accounts of the 

4 In the Dinah narrative the following material is from P : Gen. 34 : i, 2a, sd, 4, 
6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 27-29^/ and the remainder of chap. 34 belongs to J. 

5 In Numb., chap. 20, the following material is assigned to P : 20 : la, 2, 2d-4, 
6-Sa, 8^-13, 22(^-29; the following to J: 20 : i<^, 3a, 5, 8^, 19 f.; and the remainder 
to E. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 201 

same event differ widely, e. g., in the accounts of the 
events at Sinai,^ what explanation maybe given P^ Is 
the difference to be explained as due to the use of vary- 
ing sources or as a result of the different purpose and 
point of view of these writers ? 

(-x) Compare the creation accounts of J and P with Gen. i : i— 2 : 4^/ 
^^^ ^/. Gen. 2 : 4<5- 

each other, and still further with the creation stories as 24. 

found on Babylonian tablets. Note carefully the points 
of resemblance and difference, and try to determine {a) 
which of the two shows the clearer traces of Babylonian 
influence; {b) whether they both resemble the same 
Babylonian tradition; or {c) whether each reflects a 
different Babylonian tradition : or {d) whether the 
Hebrew and Babylonian accounts are to be considered 
as parallel, but independent, narratives, {e) If the Baby- 
lonian accounts are considered as sources of the He- 
brew narratives, note how thoroughly the Hebrew writers 
have edited their sources and the different style of edit- 
ing done by P as compared with J. 

For English translations of these Babylonian stories see W. 
Muss-Arnolt's rendering in R. F. Harper's Assyrian and Babylo- 
nian Literature (" The World's Great Books," Aldine edition, Nevr 
York, 1 901), pp. 282-300. On the relations of the Hebrew and 
Babylonian accounts, see Lenormant, The Beginnings of His- 
tory, pp. 47-66 ; GuNKEL, The Legends of Genesis ;]oiii<i D.Davis, 
Genesis and Semitic Tradition, pp. 1-22; H. Zimmern, Biblische 
unJ babylonische Urgeschichte (1901); J. Barth, Babel und israeli- 
tisches Religionswesen (1902), pp. 21-31. 

§210. The Legislation Embodied in the Priestly 
Narrative. — Note that, just as the prophetic histories Exod. 34 .17-28. 
included some elements of legislation, viz., the smaller 
Book of the Covenant in J, and the greater Book of the Exod. 20:23— 
Covenant, with the Decalogue (Exod. 20: 1-17), in E, ^^■^' *°*^ 
So the priestly narrative contains its proportion of laws. 

*For the distribution of material among the various sources in Exod., chaps. 
19-40, in the book of Leviticus, and in Numb., chaps, i-io, see the literature cited 
in note i. 

7 Other stories which are thought to be duplicates are : (i) the account of the birth 
of Hagar, etc., in Gen., chap. 16 (P = 16 : la, 3, 15, 16 ; the remainder belongs to J); 
(2) the birth of Isaac (P = Gen. 21 : lb, lb, 3-5; the remainder belongs to J and E): 
the revelation of God to Jacob at Bethel (P = Gen. 35 : da, 9-13, 15 ; the remainder 
belongs to J and E). 



232 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Exod. 12 : 1-20, This legal element is found in portions of Exodus and 
25 f ., 43-49; 
13:1; 25:1— Numbers and in the entire book of Leviticus, (i) Notice 

31 : 17 ; chaps. 

35-40; Numb, the relatively large amount of space and consideration 
5:1 — 9:10; J ij 

chaps. 15, 18, given to legal matters in P, as compared with J and E. 
19, 28-31, and tj <j 

35. Is it not true that in J and E the legal material is inci- 

dental, while in P it is the essential and all-important 
thing ? (2) How may this increase of legal material be 
accounted for ? Is it perhaps due to the greater interest 
of the priestly writers in such matters ? 

§211. Orderly, Systematic Treatment of Material. — 
Gen. 1:1— 2:4a. Read the priestly narrative of the creation, and (i) notice 
that the order of events is carefully distributed through- 
out six days, corresponding to the working days of the 
week, and that God is represented as resting upon the 
Gen. 2:4«-25. seventh day. (2) Is not the whole account much more 
systematic than the prophetic account of the same sub- 
Gen. 2:4^/ 5:1; ject in the following chapter? (3) Consider also the 

11:10; 11:27; division of the patriarchal period into ten "generations," 

25: 12; 25:19; ^ •^ " 

36:1; 37:2. beginning with the "generations of the heaven and of 

the earth," ^ and ending with the generations of Jacob. 
Gen. 1:1; 8:1; (4) Notice that prior to the time of Abraham the gen- 
Gen. '17:1. eral name elohtm is us^d] between Abraham and Moses 
Exod. 6:2f. the name ^/i'>^^^^<2;/ appears ; after the times of Moses the 
name is Jehovah. (5) Observe the similar system which 
appears in the presentation of the covenant idea ; the 
first covenant being represented as having been made 
Gen. 9:8-17. with Noah, its sign — the rainbow; the second covenant 
Gen., chap. 17. being with Abraham, its sign — circumcision; while still 
Exod. 3i:x6f. later the sabbath is spoken of as a covenant, and as the 
sign of a covenant. 

See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament 
(6th ed.), pp. 129 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 
353 ff.; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly 
Historians, pp. 24Si-'i Steuern agel, I?euteronomium und Josua u. 
s. w., pp. 271 f. 

§ 2 1 2. The Fondness of the Priestly Narrative for Genea- 

Gen. 1:1— 2:4^!/ logical Statements. — (i) Recall the fact, previously men- 

5:1; 10: 1 ; etc. . , , , 11 .11 

tioned, that the creation account and the patriarchal 

• Gen. 2 : 4a belongs to P's preceding narrative and should probably be transposed 
to the beginning of chap. i. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 



203 



history are presented in the form of genealogies. (2) 
Notice further the large amount of genealogical material 
in the priestly narratives, and that long periods of time 
are frequently represented by nothing more than a genea- 
logical list. (3) Does it seem that the writer uses these 
lists in large part as connecting links for his narrative, 
hastening over by their means long periods of time in 
which he has no especial interest, in order to give more 
attention to matters in which he is vitally concerned ? 

§ 2 1 3. Prevalence of Statistics and Dates in the Priestly- 
Narrative. — In illustration of this characteristic of P, 
recall the fact that it gives the ages of the antediluvians ; 
the dimensions of the ark ; the date of the flood ; the 
depth of the waters of the flood and its duration ; the 
age of Abraham at various junctures in his life ; the price 
paid for the field of Ephron ; the number of people that 
entered Egypt; the duration of the sojourn in Egypt; 
the date of the arrival in the wilderness of Sin and of that 
at Sinai ; the dimensions and specifications of the ark of 
testimony, the table of shewbread, and the golden can- 
dlestick ; most minute specifications for the tabernacle 
with all its furnishings; the exact dates of all feasts; a 
census of Israel at Sinai ; the exact value of the offerings 
made in connection with the dedication of the altar ; a 
careful demarkation of the boundaries of the various 
tribes ; etc. Does not the presence of so much material 
of this sort render the general style stiff and precise 
as compared with the free, flowing narratives of J 
and E ? 

§ 2 1 4. The Style of the Priestly Narrative is Repetitious. 
— (i) Observe that the account of the structure of the 
tabernacle is given in full twice ; also that the census of 
Israel at Sinai is twice narrated. (2) Read Numb., chap. 
7, and notice that six verses are used twelve times in this 
chapter. (3) Consider, further, the large extent to which 
certain formulas and stereotyped phrases are repeated, 
and the fact that many sentences are cast in the same 
mold. (4) Are some of these repetitions due to the fact 
that the priestly narrative is a compilation ? But can 
the tendency to the repeated use of the same phraseology 



Exod. 6 : 14-27 ; 
Numb. 1:5-16, 
20,47; 3:14-39; 
26:1—27: II. 



Gen, chap. 5; 
6:151; 7:6,11, 
13,20,24: 8:3ff., 
13, 14; 12:4; 
16:3, 16; 17:1, 
24ff, ; 21:5; 
23: 16; 46:27; 
Exod. 12: 4of.; 
16: 1 ; 19: 1 ; 
25:ioff., 23, 25, 
31 ff.; chaps. 
26-30 and 35-10; 
Lev., chap. 23; 
Numb., chaps. 
28, 29; chaps. 
1-3, and 26; 
chap. 7; 34:1-15 



Exod., chaps. 26- 
30 and 35-40; 
Numb., chaps. 
1-3 and 26; 7:13- 
17; Gen. 1:5, 
8i, 13, etc. ; 10: 
5, 20, 3if,; 25: 
16; 36:40, 43, 
etc. ; Gen. 5:6 8, 
9-11, 12-14, etc ; 
II :io-ii, 12-13, 
etc.; i2:4i5/ 
16: 16; 17.24!.; 
21:5; 25 : 26(J,- 
41 : 46a; Exod. 
7:7; Numb. 
33:39; i:2of., 
22 f., etc.; 
2:3-9, 10-16, 
etc. 



204 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

be SO explained ? Is it not a marked characteristic of 
the priestly style ? 

On the style of the priestly narrative in general see : Driver, 
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 
126-35; J- E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The 
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 125 f.; Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, pp. 
145 f., 148; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 349-54; 
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 
96-102 ; and the articles by W. R. Harper and W. H. Green in 
Hebraica, Vols. V and VI. 

§215. The Selection of Material in the Priestly Narra- 
tive. — (i) Consider whether, if it is not the purpose of the 
priestly writers to write a history in the modern sense of 
the word, but rather to teach certain truths with reference 
to God and the proper methods of worship, it may not be 
reasonable to suppose that they selected and arranged 
their material with a view to its appropriateness to the 
end they had in view. (2) Notice, for example, {a) that, 
while in J the narrative of the creation is merely intro- 

Gen. 1:1— a:4<». ductory to the account of man's first sin, in P the cre- 
ation narrative is treated in a manner to emphasize 
strongly the sanctity of the sabbath ; [d) that between 
the creation and Abraham the centuries are bridged over 
by means of genealogies, with the single exception of the 
deluge and the account of the covenant with Noah ; (c) 

Gen., chap. 17. that the only incidents in Abraham's life to which P 
gives any consideration are the account of the institu- 

Gen., chap. 23. tion of circumcision with the accompanying covenant, 

Gen. 28: 1-9. and the purchase of the field of Ephron ; {d) that the 

only incident treated in the life of Isaac is the care 

taken to provide for his son's marriage to a woman of 

Gen. 34 : 1 f ., 3<5, 4, his own race; and in Jacob's life the failure of the pro- 
6,8-10,12-18, 
etc.; 35:9-13, posed alliance between the sons of Jacob and the men 

15 ; 46 : 6-27. 

of Shechem, the appearance of God to him at Bethel 

with the promise to bless his descendants, and his 

entrance into Egypt with his sons ; {e) that in the 

Exod. 12 : 1-20, account of the exodus the only incidents receiving any 

40-51. ^j J 

considerable attention are the institution of the Passover, 

Exod., chaps. 25- the sfivinsf of manna on six days and its withholding on 
40; Lev., chaps. t> & j o 

1-27; etc. the seventh, and the legislation at Sinai which consti- 

tutes the bulk of the priestly narrative. (3) Consider in 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 205 

each of the above cases why the incident was chosen for 
treatment to the exclusion of other material, much of 
which would have been of more interest and value as 
pure history. 

See, e. g., Gunkel, Tke Legends of Genesis, pp. 146 f.; HoL- 
ZINGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 359 f. 

§216. The Theolofi:ical Point of View of the Priestly- 
Narrative. — (i) Is not the conception of God that appears 
in the priestly narrative in many respects the highest 
attained in the Old Testament ? Note that in the 
creation account of P, as compared with that of J, all 
anthropomorphic features are lacking; it is sufficient for Gen. 1:1-2:4^. 
God to speak and the thing is done. He is most holy, 

so that none but members of the holiest class may come irumb., chap. i8; 

Lev., chap. 8. 
near his altar or perform the highest functions of his wor- 
ship ; and these ministers are set apart by a most solemn 
service of consecration. The usual manifestation of his 

presence is by means of a cloud resting upon the tent Exod. 40:34 «•; 
r 1 , r 1 V ., , .. T , Numb. 16:19. 

of meeting and the appearance of hfs "glory. In the 

presence of such a holy Being the sinfulness of man is 
greatly intensified ; constant sacrifices are necessary to 
make atonement ; and there is an obligation resting upon Lev. 19:2. 
all Israel to be holy, because God is holy. This exalted 
conception of God can be traced everywhere in the nar- 
rative and in the legislation. (2) To what extent is it 
due to this conception of God and of Israel's relation to 
him that the accounts of Israel's ancestors given by P 
differ so widely in spirit from the corresponding narra- 
tives of J and E ? (3) Consider the significance of the 
fact that none of the sins aod shortcomings of the patri- 
archs, so freely mentioned by the prophetic writers, are 
alluded to in the priestly narrative; it being taken for 
granted that the patriarchs, who were the founders of the 
holy nation, as such must themselves have been holy. 
(4) Note also that no sacrifices are offered nor altars built 
by the patriarchs according to the priestly narrative, in 
contrast with the prophetic account, because sacrifice was Gen. 35:6, 9 ff.; 
not legal until the Mosaic legislation had been given '^ '^^' 
and the proper means for the right conduct of sacrifice 
provided. 



206 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See, e. g., Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Tes- 
tament (6th ed.), pp. 128 f.; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- 
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. 'I, pp, 132 f.; Holzinger, Ein- 
leitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 376-90 ; KONIG, Einleitung in das Alte 
Testament, pp. 231 ff. 

§ 217. Literature to be Consulted. 

KUENEN, ^?2 Historico-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the 
Hexateuch (1861, 2d ed. 1885; transl. 1886), pp. 65-107, 272-313; J. W. Colenso, 
The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically Examined, Parts I-VII (1862-79); 
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 4th ed. 1895 ; transl. from 
German 1885), pp. 385-91; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church 
(1 88 1, 2d ed. 1892), Lecture XII ; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol. XI (1882), pp. 
201-36 ; E. C. BissELL, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885), pp. 318-61; 
Dillmann, Genesis Critically and Exegetically Expounded {S^^ ed. 1886; transl. 1897), 
Vol. I, pp. 1-26; Franz Delitzsch, A New Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1887; 
transl. 1889), Vol. I, pp. 1-59; B. W. Bacon, "Pentateuchal Analysis," Hebraica^ 
Vol. IV (1888), pp. 219-26; Kittel, History of the Hebrews (1888; transl. 1895), Vol. 
I, pp. 96-134; W. H. Green, Hebraica, Vol. V (1888-89), pp. 149 £f., i62f., i74£f.; 
Vol. VI, pp. 127, 133, 167, 180 f., 196, 210; Vol. VII, pp. 16, 27, 33, 36 f., 113 £E., 
137 f., 141; Vol. VIII, 37 f., 63, 201 f., 228, 243; W. R. Harper, ^^(^razVa, Vol. V 
(1888-89), PP- 22 f., 25 f., 33 f., 45, 52 ff., 63 ff., 244 f., 253, 266 f., 275, 286; Vol. VI, 
pp. 2, II f., 19, 26 f., 36 ff., 242!., 252, 265 f., 276 f., 288 f.; Driver, An Introduction 
to the Literature of the Old Testament {i?>gi, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 126-35; E. J. Fripp, 
The Composition of the Book of Genesis (1892); C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of 
the Hexateuch (1892, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 69-75; B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis 
(1893), PP- 54-9. 66-94 ; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895), 
pp. 59-133; Idem, The Unity of the Book of Genesis {iSgs), passim; Addis, Doc- 
uments of the Hexateuch, Yo\. II (1898), pp. 170-88; H. E. Ryle, article "Gene- 
sis" (§ iv (a)) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. A. Briggs, 
General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899), pp., 329!.; F. H. Woods, 
article "Hexateuch" (§ iii, 2 and 4 D) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II 
(1899); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View (1899, 2d 
ed. 1901), pp. 79-119; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexa- 
teuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 121-56; G. F. Moore, articles "Genesis" (§§2f.) and 
*' Historical Literature " (§§ 9 f.) in Encyclopcedia Bibl^ca, Vol. II (1901); Gunkel, The 
Legends of Genesis (1901), pp. 144-60 ; Wellhausen, article " Hexateuch" (§§ 19, 23, 
24, 29, 30) in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of 
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 239-47. 

H. HuPFELD, Die Quellen der Genesis (1853); K. H. Graf, Die geschichtlichen 
Biicher des Alien Testaments (1866); Noldeke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten 
Testamentes {i%bg); Ed. Riehm, "Ueberdie Grundschrift des Pentateuchs," Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken, 1 872, pp. 283-307; Bleek- WELLHAUSEN, Einleitung in das 
Alte Testament (4th ed. 1878), §§ 81 ff.; Ryssel, De Elohistae sermone (1878); Giese- 
BRECHT, "Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die 
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; WuRSTER, "Zur Charakte- 
ristik und Geschichte des Priestercodex," ibid.. Vol. IV (1884), pp. iiiff.; Dill- 
mann, Die BUcher Numeri, Deuteronomium und Josua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 207 

Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1886), pp. 648 f., 663; Kautzsch und Socin, 
Die Genesis mit dusserer Unterscheidung der Quellen (1888, 2d ed. 1891); Well- 
HAUSEN, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testa- 
ments (18S9); RiEHM, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. I (1889), pp. 253-80; 
C. H, CORNILL, Einleitung in das Alte Testament {i%()i, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-68; 
Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuque, Tome 2 (1892), pp. 21-32; Wildeboer, 
Die Litter atur des Alten Testaments (Dutch, 1893; transl. into German, 1895), pp. 
306-33; Ed. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 225-31; HoL- 
zi'UGY.Vi, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), PP- 332-425; Steuernagel, Ueber- 
setzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine Ein- 
leitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; 
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 96-102. 

§218. Constructive Work. 

1. Prepare a brief survey of early Israelitish history from the pas- 
sages ordinarily assigned to P (see p. 199, note 3), noting especially 
{a) the gaps which are found to exist, that is, the periods left 
untouched, or passed over in the genealogical method (see §212); 
{B) the portions on which large emphasis is laid. 

2. Make a list of all the so-called duplicates [cf. § 209), that is, 
those events which are described by some other writer (^. g., J or E) 
as well as by P, and observe particularly the characteristics which 
distinguish the account of P from other accounts. 

3. Prepare a statement which {a) will present in logical order the 
various elements of style that characterize P, {b) will show the relation- 
ship existing between these characteristics of style and the contents, 
and {c) will exhibit the contrast between the style of P and that of the 
prophetic narrators (J and E). 

4. Trace the growth of P in its various stages, viz., P'', P^, P\ P% and 
indicate {a) the chronological order of these various elements of P ; 
(J)) the ideas and laws peculiarly characteristic of each stage of the P 
legislation. 

5. Formulate P's conception of God, and trace the influence of 
this conception in {a) the contents, that is, as explaining why certain 
things are included or omitted; (h) the style, that is, as explaining why 
the style is in such marked contrast, e. g,, with the prophetic style; (c) 
the conception, that is, as explaining the thought of the writer on 
various subjects, e. g., man, angels, worship, etc., etc. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. 



I Chron i : 
Gen. I ;s. 
I Chron. i : 1-27 

I Chron. 11 : 28— 
10: 14. 



cf. 



2 Chron. 36 : 22 f . ; 
cf. 2 Kings 
25 : 27 if. 



2 Chron. 36 : 22. 

2 Chron. 36 : 20, 
22 f. ; Ezra 4:8; 
6f. ; 7:27!. ; 
I ; Neh. I : II : 
I ff . ; Hag. I : 
1,15; Zech.7:i, 



1 Chron. 29 : 7. 



§ 2 1 9. The Scope of the History in Chronicles. — Observe 
that the narrative in Chronicles (i) begins, like that in P, 
with the very beginning of the human race; (2) runs 
rapidly over the early history of mankind in general; (3) 
takes up that of the Hebrew people, beginning with Abra- 
ham and hastening on to the death of Saul ; while (4) with 
the accession of David it treats the history more elabo- 
rately, and covers the period from David to the exile in 
the remainder of the work. Observe further that, as com- 
pared with the prophetic history in Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings, (i) while beginning at an earlier point in history, 
it gives very much less consideration to the pre-Davidic 
period ; (2) it leaves the history of the Northern Kingdom 
almost entirely out of account ; and (3) both stop with 
the exile, the end of Israel's national life. 

Consider, now, the purpose of the compiler (i) as 
gathered from the scope of his work; (2) as gathered 
from a comparison with Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; (3) 
as gathered from the comparative fulness of treatment 
of different parts. 

§220. The Date of the Books of Chronicles. — Con- 
sidering the relationship and significance of old materials 
in the book, side by side with materials which indicate a 
comparatively late date for the origin of the book as a 
whole, note (i) that the history extends to the "first 
year of Cyrus, king of Persia;" (2) that the common 
titles of Cyrus and all the Persian kings were " the 
King," the "Great King," the "King of Kings," the 
"King of the Lands;" they are never called kings of 
Persia in contemporaneous literature ; does not this fact 
point to a period considerably later than that of the 
Persian empire ? (3) that the daric, a Persian coin intro- 
duced in the time of Darius I. (521-486 B. C.) and named 
208 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 209 

after him, is spoken of as in use in the time of David ; 
does not this suggest that the coin had been so long in 
use when Chronicles was prepared that the time and 
place of its origin had been forgotten ? (4) that the 
language of the book has a very strong Aramaic coloring, 
is full of words and phrases characteristic of post-exilic 
literature, and that the syntax is of a decidedly late char- 
acter;' (5) that in the list of Zerubbabel's descendants i chron.3:i9-24. 
six generations are enumerated according to the Hebrew 
text, while the Septuagint gives eleven. Since Zerub- 
babel lived about 520 B. C, and a generation may be Hag.i:i. 
reckoned at about twenty years, this genealogy, according 
to the Hebrew text, gives us a date about 400 B. C; or, if 
the Septuagint be accepted, about 300 B. C. (6) If 
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah are the work of the same 
editor (see § 226), may we not use data furnished by Ezra 
and Nehemiah to determine the date of Chronicles? In 
Nehemiah, the high-priest Jaddua is mentioned, and the Neh.ia:ii,aa. 
phrase "the days of Jaddua" is employed to indicate a 
date in the past. Does not this suggest that the writer 
lived some time after Jaddua ? But, according to the 
narrative of Josephus,^ Jaddua was the high-priest who 
met Alexander the Great as he marched through Syria 
(333 B. C.) and rendered him favorable to the Jews. 
Hence we get a date about 300 B. C. for the compilation 
of Chronicles. 

See, e. g., Barnes, T^e Books of Chronicles ('* Cambridge Bible," 
1899), pp. xi f.; W. R. Smith and S. R. Driver, article "Chroni- 
cles," Encydopcedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 764 ; FRANCIS Brown, article 
''Chronicles I and II," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible,Vo\.l, 
p. 392; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament 
(6th ed.), pp. 518 £f. 

§221. The Sources of the Books of Chronicles. — Since 
the chronicler was one of the latest contributors to the 
collection of writings known as the Old Testament, con- 
sider the probability of his having used many sources 

^ For the linguistic data and their bearing on the date of Chronicles see especially 
Fr. Brown's article "Chronicles," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 
389-92; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old 7>j/a///^«^ (6th ed.), pp. 
504 £f.; and article "Chronicles, Books of," in Encyclopcedia Biblica (§ ii). 

^Antiquities, XI, viii, 4, 5. 



210 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



2 Chron. 9 : 29 ; 
12: 15; 13: 22; 
20 : 34 ; 26 : 22 ; 
32:34; 33: 19; 
I Chron. 29 : 29. 



I Chron. 9:1; 
18: II ; 20:34; 
25 : 26 ; 27 : 7 ; 
28 : 26 ; 32 : 32 ; 
33:18; 35:27; 
36:8. 

1 Chron. 23 : 27 ; 
27 : 24. 

2 Chron. 35 : 25. 
2 Chron. 24 : 27. 

2 Chron. 30: 22 ff., 
cf. I Kings 
22:43; 24:2, cf. 
2 Kings 12 : 3 ; 
25 : 1-4. cf. 
2 Kings 14: 21., 
5 f . ; I Chron. 14 : 
3-7, cf. 2 Sam. 
15:13-16; 20: I, 
cf. 2 Sam. 11: 1. 

I Chron. 5 : 17. 

I Chron. 16 : 8-36, 
cf. Pss. 105 : 1- 
15; 96:1-13; 
106:1, 47 f. 



already in existence both within and outside of the Old 
Testament writings, and notice his frequent references to 
such sources, viz.: (i) a series of prophetic narratives,^ («) 
the "words of Nathan, the prophet;" (d) the "prophecy 
of Ahijah, the Shilonite;" (c) the "visions of Iddo, the 
seer;" (d) the "words of Iddo, the seer;" (e) the "mid- 
rash of the prophet Iddo;" (/) the "words of Shemaiah, 
the prophet ;" (g) the " words of Jehu, the son of Hanani ;" 
(/i) " the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and last, did 
Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz, write ;" (/) the 
" vision of Isaiah, the prophet, the son of Amoz ;" (/) the 
" words of Hozai ;" (k) the " words of Samuel, the seer, 
and of Gad, the seer;" (2) a set of court records, vari- 
ously cited as (a) " the book of the kings of Israel ;" 
(d) " the book of the kings of Judah and Israel ;" (c) " the 
book of the kings of Israel and Judah ;" (d) " the affairs 
of the kings of Israel ;" (3) a similar record of the reign 
of David ; (4) a collection of lamentations ; (5) " the 
midrash of the book of the kings," which is perhaps 
identical with the "book of the kings " cited under (2); 
(6) the canonical books of Samuel and Kings must have 
been known to the chronicler, and many passages indi- 
cate a close relationship between the two; (7) ancient 
genealogical lists; (8) collections of psalms. 

In connection with an investigation of the sources, 
the following general questions are to be considered : 
Did the chronicler use any sources other than those used 
by the compiler of Samuel and Kings ? Is the relation- 
ship between Chronicles, on the one hand, and Samuel 
and Kings, on the other, to be explained as due to (a) 
direct borrowing of the former from the latter, or to (<5) 
the use of the same sources by both, or to (^) the use by 
the chronicler of a work based upon the canonical books 
of Samuel and Kings? What is the significance of the 
name " midrash " applied to two of the above-mentioned 
sources? How much material, if any, did the chronicler 
himself contribute? 



3 It is probable, however, that these existed only as a part of the more compre- 
hensive work cited under (2). 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 211 

On the sources of Chronicles see, g.g.,BAKfiES,op. cit., pp. xviii- 
xxi ; Fr. Brown, op. cit., pp. 394 f.; Driver, Introduction, etc., pp 
519 ff.; W. R. Smith and Driver, Encyclopcedia Biblica,\o\. I, coll. 
766 ff.; Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik, pp. x £f.; KUENEN, 
Einleitung u. s. w., §§ 28-32; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, 
Vol. II, pp. 244-30. 

§2 22. The Chronicler's Treatment of His Sources. — i chron. 10:1-13 

«' (<r/. I Sam. 

This is most easily seen by means of a comparison 31 : 1-13) ; " : i- 

^ ^ ^ 9 (f/. 2 Sam. 5 : 

between Chronicles on the one hand and Samuel and 1-3,6-10) ; 14:1- 

16 (,cf. 2 Sam. 

Kings on the other, (i) Note that some material appears 5-"-25) ; chap, 

in both works in almost exactly the same form. Con- chap. 7) ; 

•^ 2 Chron i :i4- 

sider the character of this material, ia) with reference to 17 {cf. i Kings 

' ^ ' 10 : 26-29) ; 

its fitness for the chronicler's purpose, (<^) as conveying 9:29— 10:19 (r/: 

ideas that were in keeping with those represented by the 12: 19); etc. 

chronicler (^/. § 227). (2) Note the presence of some i Chron. 10:13!; 

14 • 17 \ cn3.ps. 

material not found in Samuel and Kinars. Consider ia) 22-29 ; 2 chron. 

, . 14:9-15; 

the reason for its incorporation by the chronicler, \b) the 24:20-22; 

^ •' ^ ^ 33 : 10-13 ; etc. 

source whence it was derived, U) the question of its his- asam. 5:4*.; 

^ ' ^ II : 2— 12:23; 

torical credibility. (3) Note the absence from Chronicles 13:1—14:33; 

J ^•^' I Kings, chaps. 

of some material found in Samuel and Kine^s. Consider 17,18, 19; 

° 2 Kings 3 • I— 

the reason for its rejection by the chronicler as bearing 8:15; chap. 10; 

on the question of the purpose of the latter. (4) Note i chron. 13 : 15 f. 

that there are many cases in which the chronicler modi- chap. 6); 

•' 2 Chron. 5 : 4 

fies the material in Samuel and Kinsfs in some decree, icf. i Kings 

^ ° 8:3) ; chap. 23 

sometimes condensing a narrative greatly, sometimes (r/. 2 Kings, 

° o ./ ' chap. II) ; 

expanding: ; at other times chans^ins: the significance of chap. 20 {ef. a 

^ °' 000 Kings, chap. 3); 

an event, or ma^nifyine: the size of an army, or disre- 12:2^-8 (r/.i 

° -^ ° •' Kingsi4:25<) . 

e^arding historical fact. Consider, with reference to such 14: 5 and 17: 6 

^ ° • (f/. I Kings 

cases, whether the divergence is to be explained \a) as 15:14; 22. 43); 

due to the greater faithfulness of one or the other com- i Kings 

, , 1 . , , /,v 6:1-3,15-35); 

piler to the source whence the material was taken: or {b) 8:12-16 {cf.x 

^ ' V / Kings 9: 25); 

as demanded by the chronicler's more advanced concep- 14:3-5 (^/. i 

Kings 15: 13); 

tion of God ; or ic) as an outgrowth of the chronicler's 16 : 12-14 (^/. 1. 

' ^ ' ° Kings 15: 233- 

idea of the temple and the cultus : or id) as a result of 24a) 128: 5-15 

^ ' \ / (r/. 2 Kings 

the different historical circumstances and influences 16: 5); 29:3— 

31 : 21 (c/. 2 

amid which the chronicler lived, as compared with the Kings 18 :4-7'i); 

times in which Samuel and Kings were edited ; or ie) as Kings, chap. 

° ' ^ ^ 20) ; 36 : 9 f • (^/ 

due to other historical or theological influences. 2 Kings 24:8- 



§ 223. The Chronicler's Use of Genealogies. — Chron- 
icles resembles P in its abundant use of genealogical 



17). 



212 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

I Chron., chaps, lists. Note (i) that the period from Adam to the death 
of Saul is merely outlined by a series of genealogies ; 

1 Chron., chaps. (2) the genealogical character of much of the material 

in the narrative of David's preparations for the building 

2 Chron. 29:12- and care of the temple; (3) the emphasis placed upon 

genealogies of the priests and Levites. How is this use 
of genealogies to be explained ? Why is so much care 
taken in tracing the descent of priests and Levites ? Was 
there any connection between this and the later Hebrew 
law, which was very stringent in prohibiting the participa- 
tion of foreigners and non-Levites in the conduct of the 
temple worship ? Whence may we suppose that the 
chronicler secured these long lists of names ? May 
they be depended upon as historically accurate ? 

§ 224. The Chronological and Statistical Character of 
X Chron. 12 : 23-37; Chronicles. — Note that, in addition to statistics s^iven in the 

29: 1-9; 2 Chron. ° 

2:i7f. ; 15:11; narrative of Samuel and Kiners, Chronicles states the 

17 : II, 14-19; ^ 

25:5*.; 26:11 number of the Israelites who came to make David kinar 
n.;27:6; 29:17, ^ 

21, 32f.; 30:24; in Hebron: the value of the offerinsrs made in David's 
34:3. ° 

last days for the building of the temple ; the number of 

"strangers" pressed into the work of building the 
temple; the number of oxen and sheep sacrificed in one 
day in the third month of the fifteenth year of Asa ; the 
number of sheep and goats brought to Jehoshaphat as 
tribute by the Arabians ; the number of soldiers in Jehosh- 
aphat's standing army ; the number of the warriors of 
Judah led forth by Amaziah to battle against Edom in 
the valley of Salt; the size of Uzziah's standing army; 
the number of Judah's warriors slain by Pekah of Israel ; 
the exact date of the cleansing of the temple in Heze- 
kiah's reign ; the number of sheep, oxen, and goats 
sacrificed in connection with this occasion; the dates of 
Josiah's first steps toward religious reform ; and other 
similar data, (i) Can any principle, or principles, be dis- 
covered which will account for part or all of this statis- 
tical information ? or (2) is it merely a characteristic of 
the chronicler's literary style ? (3) What is the bearing 
on this question of the fact that there are divergencies 
between Chronicles and Kings in many cases where they 
give figures for the same event ? (C/". § 222, (4).) 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 213 

§225. The Literary Style of Chronicles. — Consisting, 
as it does, in large part of excerpts from earlier sources 
which have been edited and supplemented by the editor 
of Chronicles, may we expect to find the unity of style 
that is manifest in a work that comes from one hand ? 
Examine lists of the peculiarities of vocabulary and syn- 
tax in Chronicles'* and read large portions of the book 
with a view to determining (a) the style of the chroni- 
cler as distinguished from that of the sources he uses ; 
(3) the style of the chronicler as compared with that of 
the prophetic narratives in J, E, Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings, on the one hand, and with that of P, on the other. 
Is the style seen to be involved, stiff, prosaic, repeti- 
tious ? 

§ 226. The Chronicler's Selection of Material. — If it 

was not the aim of the chronicler to write a history, but 

to use history in such a way as to illustrate and enforce 

great ideas which he wished to present, should we not 

expect to find that he selects and arranges his material 

with a view to his purpose ? Note that (i) he passes 2 Chron., chap. 

over the history of northern Israel in silence, except in chap. 13; 16:1- 

6; chap. 18; 
a few places where the intimate relation of the two king- 20:35-37; 22:5- 

9 ; 25 : 6-10, 17- 

doms compels him to mention Israel; why? (2) that 24528:5-15; 

he fails to mention the sins of David, Solomon, Heze- 

kiah, and others who were interested in supporting the 

temple and its worship; why? (3) that he emphasizes i chron., chaps. 

the activities of these kings in behalf of the temple and 29:22';2c"hron. 

, 1 , 1 , chaps. 1-7; 17: 

priesthood to such an extent as to make them appear 1-9; 19:4-"; 

,., , ,. i-\/\ii 24 : 4-16 ; chaps 

more like priests than kings; why? (4) that he assigns 29-31; 34:1— 

the priests an essential part in the battle-array; why ? s-i , • 

(5) that the religious institutions are given an exceedingly i Chron. 13:12. 

large place as compared with the books of Samuel and i chron. 6:1-81; 

Kings. What light do these and other similar facts shed 23-26; 2'chron* 

upon the nature of the purpose of Chronicles? Is it 2 kings 

not a church history rather than a history of the chaps. 2'9-3i (f/. 

2Kingsi8:4). 

nation ? 

§227. The ReUgion of the Chronicler.— Note (i) "" ^iT^'y^i-^iU 

that the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all ^j^glia-se;^' 

etc. 
*See, e. g., Driver, Introduction, etc., pp. 535-40; Fr. Brown, Hastings's 
Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 389 £f. 



214 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

1 Chron. 21 :5; matters of ritual and worship ; (2) that the most relisrious 

2 Chron.i7:i4-i9; i- ^ \ / o 

25:5; 26:iiff.; kings are represented as the mightiest, David having 



11: 1. 



more than a million and a half of soldiers, Jehoshaphat 

over a million, Asa more than half a million, Amaziah 

2 Chron. 27:6; and Uzziah only 300,000, Rehoboam only 180,000; (3) 

31:21; 13:11; that prosperity is declared to be due to faithfulness to 

17 : 4 f . ; 26 : 5. ^ ^ •' 

1 Chron. 10:13 f.; Jehovah and his worship as conducted at the temple; 

2 Chron. 25:20; . 

24:24!; 28:5 (4) that disaster is declared to be due to sin in abandon- 

ff.,i9;26:i6ff.; 

2i:i2ff. ing Jehovah or his wqrship ; (5) that Jehovah is the only 

2 Chron. 13:15, 1 \ / •' j 

18; 26:5; 16:7, and all -sufficient source of help and deliverance; (6) 

iCh'ron. 28;9; that Jehovah is omnipotent and omniscient; (7) that 
2 Chron. 14 : 11 ; ' \ ' / 

5:22, 26; 16: 9- Jehovah is merciful and good, ever ready to pardon the 

iBf. ' ' ' penitent; (8) that, though great emphasis is laid upon 

3 Chron. 30:19. .11 . . ,. . . , 

ritual, the spirit or an act is recognized as more impor- 
tant than the form. 

§228. The Idealistic Character of Chronicles. — Recall 
(i) that there is silence as to the great sins of David and 

3 Chron., chaps. Other relififious leaders (see § 222 (3)) ; (2) that the Mo- 
23-28; 2 Chron., . ^ . . ,. , , . , , , 

chaps. 3, 4- saic system as it existed in the chronicler s day is repre- 
sented as in full operation in the times of David and 

1 Chron. 14:17; a Solomon ; (3) that the splendor and power of the king- 
17:10-19; 32: ' dom in the days of David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Heze- 

kiah, and others are rather a reflection of the greatness 

of the Persian empire, with which the chronicler was 

familiar, than a representation of the actual state of 

See,^.^.,iChron., affairs; (4) that a disproportionate prominence is given 
chaps. 13, 15, . , 1 . , . 1 1 1 r 1 

16, 17; 21:18- to matters of temple and ritual in the early days of the 

3 Chron*. 7:5; 13: kingdom; (5) that there is a tendency to use extraordi- 

11-13; 27:6,8; narily large numbers in calculations and estimates; (6) 

2 Chron. 8:2; that occasionally he changes the natural course of histori- 

21:12 {cf. , .__.._, . . 

2 Kings 3: 11; cal events,^. ^., representing Hiram of Tyre as giving 



8:16). 



cities to Solomon, though the book of Kings states that 
the cities were given to Hiram by Solomon in payment for 
assistance rendered by Hiram in the work of building the 
temple ; and Elijah as writing a message to King Jeho- 
ram, although Elijah had been dead for some time. How 
may these things be most satisfactorily explained ? Are 
they due merely to a lack of historical perspective ? Can 
they be accounted for as necessary to the accomplishment 
of the chronicler's purpose ? Is there a sense in which 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 215 

they represent a larger truth than could be imparted by a 
statement of bare fact ? In other words, can these rep- 
resentations be regarded as ideally true, if not literally ? 
§ 229. Literature to be Consulted. 

EwALD, History of Israel (1843, 3^ ed. 1864, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 169 ff.; 
C. F. Keil, The Books of Chronicles (1870, transl. 1872); Zockler-Murphy, The 
Books of Chronicles {L.x'UG'E's "Commentary," 1874); W. R. Smith, art. " Chronicles,' 
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1876) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel 
(1878, 5th ed. 1899, transl. 1885), pp. 171-227; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the 
Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 140 ff., 182 £f.; Ball, Chronicles (Ellicott's 
"Commentary for English Readers," 1883); Wildeboer, Origin of the Canon of the 
Old Testament (1891, transl. 1895), see Index; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the 
Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), PP- 516-40; KiTTEL, History 
of the Hebrews, Vol. II (1892, transl. 1896), pp. 224-9 ; J. ROBERTSON, Book by Book 
(1892), pp. 111-19; Jennings, "Chronicles," The Thinker, July, Sept., Nov., 1892; 
Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament (1892), pp. 138 f., 145, 151, 162; MONTEFIORE, 
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892), pp. 447 ff., 454, 483; 
Ren AN, History of the People of Israel, from the Rule of the Persians to That of the 
Greeks (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 151 ff.; W. H. Bennett, The Books of Chronicles 
("Expositor's Bible," 1894) ; Qv^XH.Y.STO^'^, Deuterographs {\%()a^), passim; DRIVER, 
"The Speeches in Chronicles," Expositor, Apr. and Oct., 1895; G. B. Gray, Studies 
in Hebrew Proper JVames (iSgb), chap, iii; Kautzsch, An Outline of the History of the 
Literature of the Old Testament {\'6gb, transl. 1899), pp. 121-8; W. E. Barnes, "The 
Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," American Journal of Semitic Languages and 
Literatures, Vol. XIII (1896-97), pp. 14-20; Idem, An Apparatus Criticus to Chroni- 
cles in the Peshitta Version (1897) ; Idem, "Chronicles a Targum," Expository Times, 
Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 316 f.; Crockett, A Harmony of Samuel, Kings, and Chroni- 
cles {iZg'j); Fr. Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I 
(1898); T. K. CHEYNE,/,fwz>^ Religious Life after the Exile {i^g^), st& Index; T. 
G. Soares, " The Import of the Chronicles as a Piece of Religio-Historical Litera- 
ture," American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; W. R. Smith AND 
S. R. Driver, art. "Books of Chronicles," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); C. F. 
Kent, History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods 
(1899), pp. loi ff.; Barnes, The Books of Chronicles ("Cambridge Bible," 1899); 
Beecher, "Is the Chronicler a Veracious Historian for the Post-Exilian Period?" 
Bible Student, Oct., 1899, Jan. and Feb., 1900; Howlett, " Wellhausen and the 
Chronicler," Dublin Review, Apr., 1900; Macmillan, "The Date of Chronicles," 
Presbyterian and Reformed Review, July, 1 900; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of 
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 270-85 ; R. Somervell, "The His- 
torical Character of the Old Testament Narratives," Expository Times, April, 1902, 
pp. 298-302. 

De Wette, Kritischer Versuch ilber die Glaubwilrdigkeit d. Chron. ("Beitrage," 
Vol. I (1806)); C. P. W. Gka.'M.bk'R.g, Die Chronik nach ihrem geschichtlichen Charak- 
ter und ihrer Glaubwilrdigkeit gepriift (1823); C. F. Kell, Apologetischer Versuch 
iiber die BUcher der Chronik (1833); Movers, Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die 
bibl. Chron. (1834); E. Bertheau, Die BUcher der Chronik ("Kurzgefasstes exege- 
tisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1854, 2d ed. 1873 ; 3d ed. by Ryssel, 1887) ; 



2l6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

KUENEN, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek (i86i, 2d ed. 1887), §§28-32; Graf, Die 
geschichtlichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866), pp. 114-247 ; De Wette-Schra- 
DER, Einleitung in das Alte Testament {i%bg), §§ 224-33 ; Wellhausen, De gentibus 
et familiis Judaeis quae i Ch. 2 — 4 enumerantur (1870); Franz Delitzsch, " Die 
Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift fiir lutherische 
Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 £f. ; L. Diestel, "Die hebraische 
Geschichtsschreibung," Jahrbilcher fiir deutsche Theologie, Vol. XVIII (1873), pp. 
365 ff.; Oettli, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzgefasster exegetischer Kommentar zum 
Alten Testament," 1889); Kykyiu, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), 
pp. 316-28; Qo^T^WA., Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 2d ed. 1896), §46; 
BuDDE, " Vermutungen zum * Midrasch ' des Buches der Konige," Zeitschrift fUr die 
alttesi. Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 37 £f. ; H. Winckler, Alttestamentliche 
Untersuchungen (1892), pp. 157-67 (= " Bemerkungen zur Chronik als Geschichts- 
quelle"); Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), PP- 269-76; Wildeboer, 
De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893; 
German transl. 1895), pp. 404-20 ; Klostermann, art. " Chronik," iff<?a/<f«0//^/c!;)fl^i> 
fiir prot. Theologie und Kirche, Yo\. IV (3d ed. 1898); '^y.^zthg^k. Die Biicher der 
Chronik ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament" (1901); Baudissin, -£"?«- 
leitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 266-78 ; Rothstein, Die 
Genealogie des Konigs Jojachim und seiner Nachkommen (/ Chron. 3 : iy-24) in 
geschichtlicher Beleuchtung (1902). 

§230. Constructive Work. 

1. Make a minute comparison of 2 Chron. 2:1 — 9:31 with i Kings 
5:1 — 11:43, ^^^ {}) classify the variations which are found; (2) 
explain the motive which may have led to the making of the change. 

2. Make a similar comparison of the psalms found in i Chron. 
16:8-36 with the form of these same psalms as they occur in the 
Psalter, viz., Pss. 105: 1-15 ; 96: 1-13 ; 106: i, 47 f. 

3. Study the classification of the sources of Chronicles as pre- 
sented by Driver, viz.: (i) the canonical books from Genesis to Kings ; 

(2) the "book of the kings of Israel and Judah," which included the 
prophetic writings referred to in 2 Chron. 20:34; 32: 32 ; 33:19, and 
possibly those mentioned in i Chron. 29:29; 2 Chron. 9:29; 12:15; 

(3) the "acts of Uzziah," 2 Chron. 26:22; (4) the " midrash of the 
prophet Iddo," 2 Chron. 13:22; and (5) the " midrash of the book of 
the kings" (2 Chron. 24:27), unless this be identical with (2). 

4. Study the classification of sources as given by Kautzsch, viz.: 
(i) excerpts from canonical books of Samuel and Kings : i Chron., 
chaps. 1-9; 10: 1-12; 11: 1-9; 14: 1-17; 16 : 43 — 17 : 27; 2 Chron. i: 13 
—3:1; 5:2-10; 5:13/5—6:12; 6:14-39; 7:4, 5»7»8; 7:17—8:1; 
8:6-11^/ 9:1-28; 9:30 — 11:4; \2\2a, 9^-11,13^/ 12:15^ — 13:2; 
13:23^/ 15:16-18; 18:3-34; 21:1; 24:1-2^; 24:273—25:4; 25:17- 
20^, 21-26; 25:273 — 26:4; 27:1-2^, 3^/ 28:1-2^, 3, 4; 29:1, 2; 
32:33^ — 33^9? 34-i>2 ; (2) similar excerpts which were edited by the 



-HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 217 

chronicler: i Chron. 13: 1-14 ; 15:25-29; 18:1 — 21:27; 2 Chron. 
1:7-12; 3:2—5:1; 7:11-16; 8:17 f.; 16:1^-6; 2o:3i-33a/ 21:5- 
10^/24:4-14; 26:21-23; 27:7-9; 32:9-21; 32:24; 33:20-25; 
34:8-32^/ 35:18 f., 20b; 35:26 — 36: 6^:/ 36:8^-12^/ (3) contribu- 
tions of the chronicler himself and older sources which were thor- 
oughly worked over by him into conformity with his own point of view: 

1 Chron. 10: 13 f.; II : 10 — 12: 40 ; 15: 1-24; 16:1-42; 21:28 — 29:30; 

2 Chron. i: 1-6; 5:11-13^/ 6:13; 6:40 — 7:3; 7:6, 9f.; 8:2-5, ii<^- 
16 ; 9: 29; 11:5 — 12:1 ; 12: 2b-^a, 12, Y^a, 14, 15^/ 13: 3-22 ; 13: 23/^ 
— 15:15; 15:19—16:1^/ 16:7—18:2; 19:1—20:30; 20:33^-37; 
21:2-4; 2i:io3 — 23: 21; 24: 2^, 3, 15-27^7/ 25:5-16,20(^,27^/ 26:5- 
20; 27:2^, 3^5-6; 28:2/^, 5-25; 29:3—32:8; 32: 22 f., 25-33^/ 33:10-19; 
34:3-7; 34:32^—35:17; 35:20^,21-25; 36:6^-8^,12^-23. 

5. Prepare an outline statement in which you will embody the 
principal propositions (perhaps six or eight) which seem to hold good 
concerning the contents, style, date, and character of the books of 
Chronicles. 

§231. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Take up the question of genealogies in the Old Testament, and 

consider (i) the extent to which they appear; (2) the form in which 

they are given ; (3) the purpose, in each case, of the insertion ; (4) 

the accuracy of the representation; (5) similar usage in other Semitic 

literatures, especially Arabic. 

See, e. g., E. L. Curtis, article " Genealogy," Hastings's Dictionary of the 
Bible; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap, i ; S. A. Cook, 
article "Genealogies," Encyc. Biblica; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 2-6; 
Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeis quae / Ch. 2-4 enumerantur ; M. 
Berlin, "Gershonite and Merarite Genealogies," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 
XII (1900), pp. 291 £f.; McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, 2d series, chap. 9 
( = "Examples of Fabricated Genealogies"); G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew 
Proper Names, chap, iii ; Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Esra und Nehemia. 

2. Consider the question of numbers in Chronicles, including (i) the 
variations between Chronicles and the prophetic histories of Samuel 
and Kings ; (2) the motive for insertion ; (3) the method of represen- 
tation ; (4) the general accuracy. 

See, e. g., Francis Brown, article "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the 
Bible, Wo\. I, p. 394; T. G. Scares, American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill, pp. 
264 f.; Benzinger, Chronik, p. ix. 

3. Take up for study the lost books of Scripture which are cited in 
Chronicles, and in connection with these (i) other lost books cited 
elsewhere in Scripture, e. g., the book of Jashar ; (2) the character, in 
general, of these books ; (3) the relation of these books to the canoni- 
cal books. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

HISTORICAL LITERATURE — THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 

§232. The Scope of the History in Ezra-Nehemiah. — 

Ezrai:i-4. Note that the narrative in these books (i) begins with 

the decree of Cyrus permitting the exiled Jews to return 

Neh. 13:6-30. from Babylon; (2) closes with an account of the activi- 
ties of Nehemiah during his second visit to Jerusalem ; 
(3) covers a period, therefore, of about one hundred 
years ; and (4) that comparatively few of the events 
and movements belonging to this period are treated in 
the history, much being passed over in silence. 

Ezrai:5-ix; 2:1- Observe the order of presentation : (i) The account 
of the return gives the decree of Cyrus, a statement about 
the gifts sent to the temple, and a long list of the names 
of the returning exiles ; nothing being said of the journey 

Ezras:!— 4:34. itself. Then follows (2) the account of the building of 
an altar to Jehovah and of the attempt to rebuild the 
temple ; with (3) the story of the successful opposition 

Ezras:!— 6:23. of the enemies of the Jews. (4) The next section 
describes (a) the renewed effort to build the temple, 
under the leadership of Haggai and Zechariah; (d) the 
renewed opposition on the part of the enemy and the 
resulting correspondence with Darius ; (c) the comple- 
tion of the work, and the festivities connected with the 

Ezra7:i— 8:36. dedication of the restored temple. Then (5), passing 
over in silence a period of about sixty years, the historian 
gives the story of Ezra's visit to Jerusalem, including the 
letter of authority given to him by Artaxerxes, a list of 
the names of all who accompanied Ezra, and a list of 
the presents sent up from Babylon for the temple. (6) 

Ezra9:i~xo:44. The last section of the book of Ezra deals with Ezra's 
efforts to put a stop to the marriages of Jews with for- 
eigners, and gives much space to Ezra's prayer in refer- 
ence to this subject, and to a list of the names of those 
who had married foreign wives. 
218 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 2ig 

Notice that the book of Nehemiah (i) opens with Neh. i:i— a:8. 

the account of Nehemiah's purpose to visit Jerusalem, 

and his success in securing the sanction and the support 

of Artaxerxes the king. Then follows (2) the narrative of Neh. 3:9-20. 

Nehemiah's arrival at Jerusalem, his tour of inspection 

made under cover of darkness, and his success in arousing 

the citizens to repair the walls of the city. (3) At this point Neh. 3 : 1-33. 

is inserted a list of those who engaged in the work, with 

careful indication of the special portion performed by each 

family or group ; together with a description of the efforts 

of the Samaritans to hinder the work and the measures Neh. 4:1-23. 

taken by Nehemiah to bring the plans of the Samaritans 

to nought. Thereupon (4) comes a digression con- Neh. 5:1-19. 

cerning Nehemiah's championship of the cause of the 

oppressed debtors among the Jews, and his own policy of 

refraining from levying upon the people for his support 

as former governors had done. (5) The story of the Neh. 6:1— 7:4. 

building of the walls is then continued by a recital of 

various conspiracies made by the Samaritans against the 

life and the influence of Nehemiah until the work of 

building was completed and the city was properly 

gfuarded. (6) A list of those who had returned from Neh. 7 : 5-73 ; c/. 
=* ^ ' Ezra 3: 1-70. 

exile is next included, this list being a duplicate of one 
given in Ezra. Upon this list follows (7) the account of Neh. 8:1-9:38. 
Ezra's introduction of the law and of its adoption by 
the people in public assembly. Then comes (8) a list Neh. 10:1-27; 10: 
of those who signed the new covenant and an account of 
the terms of the covenant itself, with still other lists of Neh. 11:1-13: 36. 
names. (9) A description of the ceremonies in connec- Neh. 13 : 37-43. 
tion with the dedication of the wall is then given. (10) 
To this are subjoined brief statements concerning the Neh. 12:44— 13:3. 
provision made by Nehemiah for the support of the tem- 
ple ministry and concerning the expulsion of foreigners. 
The narrative closes (11) with the reforms in the inter- Neh. 13:4-31- 
ests of the temple and its ministry, sabbath observance, 
and the prohibition of mixed marriages, carried through 
by Nehemiah after his return from a visit to Babylon. 

§ 233. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement, based upon a study 
of the foregoing outline of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, concern- 
ing the purpose of these narratives, as it appears (a) in the kind of 



220 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

matter selected for treatment ; {p) in the relative amount of prominence 
given to the various subjects; (^r) in the places assigned respectively to 
Ezra and to Nehemiah. 

§234. The Unity of the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah. — 
Consider the following facts: (i) Some most ancient 
Jewish and early Christian writers speak of the book of 
Ezra in such a way as to indicate that they include with 
it the present book of Nehemiah/ (2) The old Jewish 
commentators, e. g., Rashi and Aben Ezra, pass from 
Ezra 10:44 to Neh. 1:1 without any break such as is 
customary in passing from one book to another. (3) 
The Massoretic notes attached to each book in the 
Hebrew Bible are not found at the close of Ezra, but do 
appear at the end of Nehemiah, and there give facts 
showing that the Massoretes regarded Ezra-Nehemiah as 
one book ; e. g., they declare Neh. 3 : 12 to be the middle 
verse of this book. (4) The sections into which the 
Hebrew text was divided by the Massoretes for use in 
the synagogue service show that they thought of Ezra- 
Nehemiah as a single book, one section being Ezra 8 : 35 
— Neh. 2:1. (5) The two books are united in the Sep- 
tuagint translation. 
§235. Constructive Work. — In the light of these facts, and the 
additional fact that the two books treat the same period, are concerned 
with the same general problems, and furnish much evidence pointing 
to their having been edited by the same hand, formulate an extended 
answer to the question : Shall we consider the books of Ezra and 
Nehemiah, now treated separately, as a single literary production? 
See especially Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible"), pp. i-xiii. 

§236. The Unity of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. — 

2 Chron. 36:22!; What is the significance of the following facts ? (i) The 

closing verses of Chronicles are repeated at the opening 

of the book of Ezra. (2) Both works are compilations 

from various sources (see §§ 221, 228). (3) Both give 

especial prominence to genealogical lists (see §§223; 

230, (i)). (4) The two works greatly resemble each 

other in general literary style and in their vocabulary 

(see §§225; 230,(4)). (5) The two exhibit the same 

absorbing interest in matters relating to the temple and 

'So, e. g., Talmud, Bada bathra, folio 14, c. 2; Melito, bishop of Sardis {ca, 180 

A. D.), cited in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., IV, 26. 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 221 

its service; e. g.^ {a) great prominence is given to the Ezra3:8-i2; 
Levites, who are mentioned more than sixty times in cf. chron. 
Ezra-Nehemiah and about one hundred times in Chroni- 
cles ; {b\ in both the musical service is emphasized: ic) Ezra3:iof.; 

^ \ ' V ■> \ ! ifeh. 12:27, 36, 

in both prayer is highly esteemed, and hence is frequently 46; r/. Chron. 
placed in the mouths of Israel's great leaders; {d) ^^^'hr"^' '*^' 
relis:ious festivals and ceremonies are described in detail Ezrae: 19-22, 

° Neh. 12 : 27-43 , 

by both ; {e) the porters are mentioned as a part of the ^A aChron., 

temple staff nowhere except in Ezra-Nehemiah and Ezra 2 :42 ; Neh. 
^ 12:25,45,47; 

Chronicles, in which books they are often so spoken of ; ^/- Chron. 

(/) the Nethinim, mentioned frequently in Ezra-Nehe- Ezra7:7; 817; 

miah, are mentioned in no other book except Chronicles; 10:28^^/.' 

(6) Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles come from the same 

period (see §§220, 227); (7) Ezra-Nehemiah takes up 

the history at the point where it stops in Chronicles and 

continues it until the building of the second temple is 

narrated, the two books, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, 

thus constituting a history of the temple and its worship 

from the time of the building of Solomon's temple until 

the restoration of worship in the days of Ezra and 

Nehemiah. 

See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xxvi £f.; Reuss, Das 
Alte Testament, pp. 8 ff.; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p. 
285; T>KIVY.R, Introduction, etc., pp. 516 f.; Sayce, Introduction to 
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther, pp. 29 f.; cf. Higher Criticism and the 
Verdict of the Monuments, pp. 537 f., 548. 

§237. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement discussing the 
explanation of these facts, whether (i) by the supposition that the two 
editors, working in the same period and upon the same subjects and 
with the same interests, used the same methods and arrived at similar 
results ; or (2) by the supposition that the two books are really one, 
being the product of the same editor's labors. 

§ 238. The Date of Ezra-Nehemiah {cf. § 220). — Note 
(i) the use of the expression "the days of Nehemiah;" Neh. 12:26, 47. 
does the writer not seem to regard these days as long 
past? (2) the use of the title "king of Persia," in view Ezrai:if.,8; 
of the fact that contemporary sources when speaking of 24; 6:14; r-^- 
Persian monarchs use simply "the kins:;" does not this Hag. 1:1,15; 

-^ . , , , , Zech. 7:1; Ezra 

susrgest that the Persian dominion was a thine: of the 7:271.; 8:1,23, 

• 1 . , . ^ , , r T^ . , , ,, 25,36; Neh. 

past in the writer s time? the words "of Persia would i:ii;2:iff.; 

be superfluous while the Persian empire was supreme, 13:6. 



222 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Neh. 12:101,22; but entirely appropriate after its overthrow; (3) the 

josepiius, An- reference to Taddua, the his^h-priest, who lived three 

vii,8. generations later than Eliashib, the contemporary of 

Nehemiah ; this points to a time as late as the days 

of Alexander the Great for Jaddua, and the phrase 

" the days of Jaddua," would seem to indicate that the 

Neh. laraa. priesthood of Jaddua was now long past; (4) the refer- 

ence to " the reign of Darius, the Persian," as a period 
some time past; it is generally agreed that the king 
referred to is Darius Codomannus, 336-332 B. C; (5) 

Keh. 12:23. the reference to "the book of the chronicles" which is 

said to have contained the register of the Levites as far 

down as the high-priesthood of Johanan, the son of 

Ezra 4: 6-23; Eliashib; (6) the treatment of the sources, which is such 
7:1-10; etc. ^ \ / 

as no contemporary historian would have ventured {cf, 

§229). 
§239. Constructive Work. — Discuss the significance of the preced- 
ing facts; and determine whether they point (i) to the work of a later 
editor, who inserted all these allusions to late history in a book that 
had been written at an earlier period, or (2) ,to the probability that 
the book as a whole was not compiled and edited until a time some- 
where about 300 B. C. 

See, e. g., Ryle, £zra and Nehemiah, pp. xxiii ff.; Driver, Introduction, etc.y 
p. 545 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die BUcher des Alien Testamentes, pp. 266 £f. 

§ 240. The Sources of Ezra-Nehemiah. — In support of 
the position that Ezra-Nehemiah is the work of an editor 
who compiled largely from existing sources, consider (i) 
Ezra2:i;5:i; the many cases of abrupt transition from one topic or 
1:1; 7:* 733/ ' incident to another, an abruptness which is natural in a 
work made up of extracts from older works placed side by 
side, but hard to account for in a work all of which origi- 
nated from the same hand ; (2) the frequent change from 
the third to the first person, and vice versa, in closely 
related sections of the work, without any indication of 
Ezra 4: 8— 6:18; reason for the change; (3) the presence of two large sec- 
^" " ^ ■ tions written in Aramaic, without any apparent reason for 

Neh. 7: 6-73; 11: the change of speech ; (4) the presence of lists of names 

3-36 ; 12 : 1-26. 

which have no close connection with the context to 

Ezra2:2;3:2; which they belong ; (5) the use of important names in 

Keh. i2:22?3a- such a way as to imply that they had occurred in some 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 223 

previous context from which they are now severed ; (6) 
the marked differences in style and language appearing 
in various parts of the narrative ; (7) the fact that all the 
other historical books of the Old Testament are com- 
pilations; for the book of Chronicles especially see 
§ 221; (8) the allusion to the "books of the chronicles," Neh. 12:23. 
apparently a temple-register from which the editor 
obtained some materials. 

As materials which the editor seems to have derived 
from earlier sources may be noted (i) the decree of Ezra 1:1-4. 
Cyrus permitting the exiles to return home-; (2) the Ezra 4 : 7-16 ; 4 : 
Aramaic sections containing {a) the letter sent by the 6 : 18 ;' 7 :"i2-26. 
Jews* enemies to Artaxerxes; (d) the king's reply; (c) 
the account of the building of the temple in the days of 
Haggai and Zechariah, with certain letters that passed 
between Jerusalem and Babylon with reference to it; 
(d) the firman of Artaxerxes endowing Ezra with such 

authority as he desired; (i) various lists, includinaf (^) Ezra 1:9-11; 

^ / X Ezra2:i-7oand 

the vessels of the temple; (3) the Jews who came back Neh. 7:6-73; 

^ . Ezra 10 : 20-44 ; 

from exile with Zerubbabel ; (c) the men who married Neh., chap. 3; 

10: 1-27 ; II : 3- 

foreign wives; (d) the builders of the wall; (^) the 36; 12:1-26. 

signers of the covenant ; (/) the dwellers in Jerusalem 

and in other cities ; (g) the priests and Levites ; (4) the Neh. 7:733— 

account of the adoption of the law and the new covenant ^°'^^' 

in the time of Nehemiah ; (5) certain portions of the Ezra 7 : 27-8 : 34 ; 

narrative which use the first person and seem to have ^■^~^^' 

belonged to the memoirs of Ezra; (6) similar sections Neh., chaps. 1-6; 

which seem to have been taken from the memoirs of 43^73^4-31."^^' 

Nehemiah. 

§ 241. The Treatment of the Sources in Ezra-Nehemiah. 

— Consider (i) the form of the decree of Cyrus with Ezra 1 : 2 ff . ; «/. 

reference to the return of the exiles as it is given in two 

different places in Ezra, and note the differences in 

phraseology and contents ; is it probable that there were 

two copies of the decree in existence differing so much 

as these, or is it more natural to ascribe the variations to 

the hand of the editor? (2) the fact that a large section Neh., chaps. 8-10; 

cf. Ezra, chaps. 
of Nehemiah appears to belong to the memoirs of Ezra, 7-10. 

being closely connected with them in the period with 

which they deal, in tone, and in phraseology; (3) the Ezra, chaps. 4-6 ; 

Neh., chaps, 
fact that the opposition of the Samaritans to the Jewish 4,6. 



224 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

community is all crowded together at the beginning of 
the narrative, though, as a matter of fact, the dates given 
show that this opposition extended over a period of 
about eighty years and grew more and more bitter ; (4) 
Ezra 2: 1— 3:1a/ the fact that there are more than one hundred variations 

cf. Neh. 7 : 6-73. 

in two copies of the same genealogical list, and, in par- 
ticular, that the numbers differ oftener than they agree. 
Consider further (5) the evidence pointing to the 
conclusion that Ezra's expedition x&dWy followed \}i\dX of 
Nehemiah instead of preceding it, as the editor's narrative 
reads; e. g., (a) Nehemiah's memoirs make no allusion to 
any previous work of Ezra ; (p) those who came back with 
Ezra seem to have taken no part in the rebuilding of the 
walls, as they certainly would have done had they been 

Neh. 13:25; cf. present ; ic) Ezra's measures, especially with reference to 
Ezra, chap. 10. ^ ' ^ ' ^ r j 

intermarriage, all seem more decisive than those of Nehe- 
miah, which have the appearance of being tentative; ((f) 
the fact that, according to the editor's narrative, Ezra's 
law was not promulgated until after the arrival of Nehe- 
miah, and that no explanation of this long delay is 
Ezra 9:9. offered by the editor; {e) the fact that Ezra gives thanks 

to Jehovah that the walls have been rebuilt at a time 
when Nehemiah, the builder of the walls, had not yet 
appeared on the scene, according to the editor's narrative. 
What motive could have led to such a rearrangement of 
the documentary sources? Is it sufficient to say that it 
was for the purpose of giving Ezra, the priest, precedence 
over Nehemiah, the layman? 

§ 242. The Style of Ezra-Nehemiah. — As indicative of 

Ezra chap. 2; *^^ editor's tastes and interests note (i ) the large amount 

44^Neh.3°i-32; °^ genealogical mdX^xidX he incorporates into his narrative, 

Ji?iiH-°3?26. giving lists of those who took part in the first return 

from exile, of those who helped build the wall, of those 

Ezra 1 : 10 1; who dwelt in Jerusalem, etc., etc.; (2) the similar fond- 

\z-^r^2i\%^fi ness for statistical statements, as evidenced in connection 

%\ 18 • 7f66-72. with the above lists and on every other possible occasion ; 

Ezra 1:1; 3:1,6, (3) the numerous chronological data with which his work 

i5;'*7?i* 7-9; ^* abounds. In connection with these characteristics, 

?6f!;^Neh°i?i; recall the similar features seen to have been character- 

6:l5;V:73'V:2 istic of the books of Chronicles (see §§ 223, 224). Cori- 

t,i3,i7t;9:i; gidcr (4) the Style of the editor's own contributions to 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 225 

the work as distinguished from the style of the sources 
used by him. 

§243. Constructive Work. — Examine lists of phrases and words 
peculiar to the various sources, and read each source separately, as far 
as possible, in order that its literary style may impress itself upon your 
mind. Then treat the editor's own contribution in the same way, and 
compare its style with that of the editorial contributions to the books 
of Chronicles, with a view to the light that may be thrown by such a 
comparison upon the question of the unity of Chronicles, Ezra, and 
Nehemiah. 

See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xviii f., xxviii f.; Driver, Introdtir- 
tion, etc., pp. 546 ff., 553; Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren, 
insbesondere zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (1899). 

§ 244. The Religion of Ezra-Nehemiah. — If Ezra-Nehe- 

miah is the result of a compiler's work, the religious 

interests of the compiler must be looked for in three 

directions: (i) the nature of the subjects he selects for 

treatment ; (2) the relative prominence given by him to 

various matters ; (3) the religious tone of the material 

contributed by himself. In reference to (i) it maybe Neh. 12 : 27-43 ; 

11 1 1 • 1 1 1 r 1 • • 1 Ezra, chaps. 9, 

noted that the subjects treated are all of a religious char- 10. 

acter, such matters as are not in themselves distinctively 

religious being given a religious interpretation, e. g., 

the building of the walls and the movement against inter- 

marriasres with foreigners. As to (2) we may note the Ezra 1:2-11; 2: 
. . , 1 1 . rr . , 68ff.; chap. 3; 

great prominence given to the temple and its affairs, the Neh. 3:4-14; 

, . , . . , . Ezra 6: 16-22; 

important place in the community assigned to priests Neh. 12 : 27-47 ; 

IX- 111 r -1 1 Ezra 2 : 40-63 ; 

and Levites, and the large amount of attention bestowed 3:8-10,12; 7:7, 

f . 11 . . r 1- • "-13. 24; 8: 15- 

upon matters of ritual, descriptions of religious cere- ao;io:i8ff.; 
monies, and the like. Concerning (3) we observe the Ezra6:ifr-22; ' 
priestly interest dominant in the editor's work, and that Neh. 12:44-47;' 

13 • i~3. 

the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all matters of 
ritual and worship. 

In general, is there any appreciable difference be- 
tween the religious ideals and feelings of the editor of 
Ezra-Nehemiah and those of the Chronicler (c/. § 227)? 
If not, is not this a strong indication of the unity of 
Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles? 

§ 245. Literature to be Consulted. 

F. W. SCHULZ, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (Lange's "Commentary on the 
Holy Scriptures," 1876, transl. 1877); Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. I (1843, 3d ed. 



226 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

1864, transl. 1883), pp. 169-96; Keil. Commentary on the Books of Ezra, Nehemiah 
and Esther (1870, transl. 1879); D. H. Haigk, * Coincidence of the History of Ezra 
with the First Part of the History of Nehemiah," Transactions of the Society of Biblical 
Archceology, Vol. II (1873), pp. 1 10-13 ; J- S. Black, articles on "Ezra" and "Books 
of Ezra and Nehemiah," Encyclopcedia Britannica, Vol. VIII (1878); W. R. Smith, 
The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 42 f.; Geo. 
Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah (" Pulpit Commentary," 1881) ; Kuenen, National 
Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 323-7 (on "Ezra 
and the Establishment of Judaism") ; A. H. Sayce, An Introduction to the Books of 
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885, 3d ed. 1893); Marcus Dods, "Ezra" and "Nehe- 
miah," Expositor, 3d series. Vol. VI (1887), pp. 53-64, 287-97; P- H. Hunter, After 
the Exile, Vol. II (1890); G. Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah, Their Lives and Times 
("Men of the Bible " series, 1890); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old 
Testament (ist ed. 1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 540-54; W. F. Adeney, Ezra, Nehemiah 
and Esther {i?)g2))\ Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), 
pp. 537-53; A. C, Hervey, " The Chronology of Ezra II and IV, 6-23," Expositor, 
June, 1893, pp. 431-43 ; July, 1893, pp. 50-63 ; H. E. Ryle, The Books of Ezra and 
Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible," 1893); G. S. Goodspeed, "Ezra and Nehemiah," 
Biblical World, Vol. 1 (1893), PP- 40-48, 208-19; H. Howorth, The Academy, 1893, 
Jan. 7, pp. 13 f.; Jan. 21, p. 60; Feb. 4, p. 106; Feb. 25, pp. 174 f.; April 15, pp. 326 f.; 
June 17, p. 524; July 22, pp. 73 f.; Sept. 16, pp. 233 f. ; Idem, "A Criticism of the 
Sources and Relative Importance and Value of the Canonical Book of' Ezra and the 
Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras I," Transactions of the Ninth International Con- 
gress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), PP- 68-85; C. C. Torrey, The Composition and 
Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestament- 
liche Wissenschaft," II, 1896); Kautzsch, The Literature of the Old Testament {i^gt, 
transl. 1899), pp. 121-8; J. A. Selbie, "Van Hoonacker on Israel's Return from 
Exile," Expository Times, Yo\. VII (1897), pp. 71-3; Idem, "Israel's Return from 
Exile," ibid., pp. 320-22; Idem, "Ezra-Nehemiah," ibid., pp. 509-11; Idem, "Kosters 
on Israel's Return from Exile," ibid.. Vol. IX, pp. 66-8; A. R. S. Kennedy, "Did 
the Jews Return under Cyrus ?" ibid.. Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 268-71; Van Hoonacker, 
"The Return of the Jews under Cyrus," ibid.. Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 351-4 ; Cheyne, 
Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), pp. 36-8 1; Idem, "The Times of Ezra 
and Nehemiah," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 238-50; N. Schmidt, "Nehe- 
miah and His Work," ibid., Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 329-43 ; L. W. Batten, art. "Ezra 
and Nehemiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. F. Kent, A 
History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods (1899), 
pp. 126-36, 167-214 ; J. O. Boyd, " The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian 
and Reformed Review, 1900, pp. 414-37; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro- 
phetic and Priestly Historians {igoi),-^^^. '^i^-'^t\; Cheyne, "From Isaiah to Ezra," 
American Journal of Theology, 1901, pp. 433-41; Kosters and Cheyne, art. "E-ira- 
Nehemiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901) ; Guthe and Batten, The Books of 
Ezra and Nehemiah — Critical Edition of the Hebrew Text, etc. ("Polychrome Bible," 
1901); J. W. Harper, The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther ("The Temple 
Bible," 1902). 

Kleinert, in Beitrdge zu den theologischen Wissenschaften von den Professoren 
zu Dorpat, Band I (1832), pp. 1-304 (on origin, structure, and date of Ezra-Nehe- 
miah) ; Keil, Apologetischer Versuch iiber die Biicher der Chronik und Uber die 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 22/ 

Integritdt des Buches Ezra (1833); KUENEN, Hhtorisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar het 
Ontstaan en de Verzameling van de Boeken des Ouden Verbonds, Vol. II (1861, 2d ed. 
1887, German transl. 1892), pp. 103-83; Schrader, "Die Dauer des zweiten Tempel- 
baues. Zugleich ein Kritik des Buches Ezra," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 
1867, pp. 460-504; Margraf, " Zur Aufhellung der nachexilischen Chronologie," 
Theolog. Quartahchrift, 1870, pp. 567 £f.; DE Saulcy, Atude chronologique des livres 
d'Esdras et de Nehemie (1868); Bohme, Nehemia 1-6 (1871); Franz Delitzsch, 
"Der Esra der tjberlieferung und der Esra der neuesten Pentateuch-Kritik," Zeit- 
schrift fiir die gesamte lutherische Theologie u. Kirche, Vol. XXXVIII (1877); J. 
Halevy, "Esdras et le code sacerdotal," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. IV 
(1877); Eb. Nestle, " Zum Frage nach der urspriingliche Einheit der Biicher Chronik, 
Esra und Nehemia," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1879, pp. 155-21; Smend, 
Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881); A. Rosenzweig, Das Jahrhundert 
nach dem babylonischen Exil mil besonderer Riicksicht auf die religiose Eniwicklung 
des Judentums (1885); J. Halevy, "Esdras a-t-il promulgu^ une loi nouvelle?" Revue 
de Vhistoire des religions, Vol. XII (1885); Kuenen, " L'oeuvre d'Esdras," ibid., Vol. 
XIII (1886), pp. 334-58 (German transl. by K. Budde in Gesammelte Abhandlungen 
zur biblischen Wissenschaft von Dr. Abraham Kuenen (1894), pp. 370— 91); Bleek- 
Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 205-22 ; Ber- 
THEAU-Ryssel, Die Biicher Esra-Nehemia und Esther erkldrt (" Kurzgefasstes 
exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1887); Ryssel, " Die Anf ange der 
jiidischen Schriftgelehrsamkeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1887, pp. 149-82; 
Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 95-193; Oettli, Ezra und 
Nehemia (Strack und Zockler's " Kurzgefasste Kommentar," 1889); Riehm, Ein- 
leitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 329-38 ; Van Hoonacker, Nehemie 
et Esdras. Une nouvelle hypothhse sur la chronologie de Vepoque de la restauration 
(1890); Kuenen, " De Chronologie van het Perzische Tijdvak der Joodsche Geschie- 
denis," Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 
Afdeeling Letterkunde, Amsterdam, 1890, pp. 273-322 (German transl. by K. Budde, 
in' Gesammelte Abhandlungen u. s.w. (1894), pp. 212-51); Cornill, Einleitung in 
das Alte Testament {i^gi, 3d ed. 1896), §45 ; Van Hoonacker, Zorobabel et le second 
temple: etude sur la chronologie des six premiers chapitres du livre d'' Esdras (1892) ; 
Idem, Nehemie en Van 20 d'Artaxerxes I, Esdras en Van 7 d^Artaxerxes J/ (iSgi); 
ZusZfDie gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge der Juden (1892), pp. 20-31; Yi.O'iilG, Einleitung 
in das Alte Testament (1893), PP- 276-85 ; Ch. Huyghe, " La chronologie des livres 
d'Esdras et de Nehemie," Revue des questions historiques, 1893; Wildeboer, De 
Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German 
transl. 1895), PP« 404-20; Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak 
(1894, German transl. 1895); Lagrange, "Nehemie et Esdras," Revue biblique, Oct. 
1894; Wellhausen, "Die Riickkehr der Juden aus dem babylonischen Exil," Nach- 
richten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft zu Gottingen, 1895, pp. 166-86; 
Kosters, "Het Tijdvak van Israels Herstel," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1895, PP- 
549-57; 1896, pp. 489-504; 1897, pp. 518-54; Fl. de Moor, "L'^poque de la 
restauration juive d'apr^s les livres d'Esdras et de Nehemie," Science catholique, 
1895 ; Van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes sur la restauration juive aprhs Vexil 
de Babylone (1896); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896); Well- 
hausen, Gottingischer gelehrter Anzeiger, 1897, No. 2, pp. 89 ff. (review of Meyer's 
Entstehung des Judenthums) ; Ed. Meyer, /. Wellhausen und meine Schrift, "Die 



228 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Entsiehung des Judenthums'' (1897) ; J. Marquart, Fundamente israelitischer und 
judischer Geschichte (1897), pp. 28-68; Sellin, Serubbabel — ein Beitrag zur 
Geschichte der messianischen Erwartung und der Entsiehung des Judenthums (1898), 
pp. 48-61; Klostermann, art. "Esra und Nehemia," Realencyklopcedie fiir prot, 
Theol. u, Kirche, Vol. V (3d ed. 1898) ; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899), 
pp. 245-60 ; J. Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren insbesondere 
zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften {i%gg); Moulton, "Uber die 
Uberlieferung und den textkritischen Werth des dritten Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir 
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 209-58 ; Vol. XX (1900), pp. 
1-35; WiNCKLER, "Die Zeit der Herstellung ]uda.s," Altorientalische Forschungen, 
zweite Reihe, Band II (1899), pp. 210-27 ; Idem, "Die Zeit von Ezras Ankunft in 
Jerusalem," z<^?^., pp. 241-4 ; Idem, "Die doppelte Darstellung in Ezra-Nehemia," 
ibid., Band III (1901), pp. 458-89; NiKEL, Die Wiederherstellung des jiidischen 
Gemeinwesens nach dem babylonischen Exi/ {i goo) ; C. Siegfried, Esra, Nehemia und 
Esther Ubersetzt und erkldrt{" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1901); Sellin^ 
Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde, Band II (190 1); Baudissin^ 
Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 264-6, 279-300 ; Bertho- 
LET, Die Biicher Esra und Nehemia erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten 
Testament," 1902) ; Carl Holzhey, Die Biicher Ezra und Nehemia. Untersuchung 
ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen Charakters (1902). 

§ 246. Supplementary Topics. 

1 . Make a careful comparison of the parallel passages, Ezra 2 : i — 3 \ia 
and Neh. 7:6-23, noting and classifying the variations in the two lists. 

2. Analyze Ezra-Nehemiah carefully, with a view to determining 
for yourself the sources of the various materials of which it is com- 
posed and the historical value of the narrative as it has been presented 
by the editor. 

Cf. especially Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah; 
Qmtyl^, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Polychrome Bible," 1901); Siegfried, Esra, Nehe- 
mia und Esther ("Handkommentar z. A, T."), pp. 7-14; Kosters, Het Herstel van 
Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak (1894, Germ, transl. 1895); Carl Holzhey, Z>?> 
Biicher Ezra und Nehemia; Untersuchung ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen 
Charakters {igo2) ; Meyer, Z)z<? Entstehung des Judenthums; Schrader, Theologi- 
sche Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460-504; Van HoQ-iiKCK^K, Nehemie et Esdras; 
J. O. Boyd, "The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian and Reformed 
Review, 1900, pp. 414-37. 

3. Compare the canonical book of Ezra with the apocryphal book, 
Esdras I, noting (i) the materials common to both, (2) the materials 
peculiar to each ; and consider the relative value of each as historical 
sources. 

See, e. g., H. Howorth, " A Criticism of the Sources and Relative Importance 
and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras 
I," Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), pp. 
68-85 ; Moulton, "Uber die Uberlieferung und den text-kritischen Werth des dritten 
Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX, pp. 209-58; 



HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 229 

XX, 1-35 ; Bertholet, Esra und Nehemia, p. xvi : Siegfried, Esra, Nehemia 
und Esther, pp. 14 f. 

4. Study the contents of the numerous genealogical lists in Ezra- 
Nehemiah from the point of view of (i) their origin, (2) their historical 
value, (3) their purpose. 

See Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881). 

5. Study the descriptions of priestly ceremonies, and customs, the 
provision made for the support of the temple and its ministry, and all 
other references to laws and usages of worship, and note the points of 
contact with the codes of worship, with a view to determining which 
stratum of laws is reflected by the narrative of Ezra-Nehemiah. 

6. Consider the fact that certain portions of Ezra-Nehemiah are 
written in Aramaic, and the best explanation of this fact. In this con- 
nection study the significance of the presence of an Aramaic section in 
the book of Daniel. 

See, e. g., Bertholet, op. cit., p. xv; Siegfried, op. cit., p. 7 ; Ryle, op. cit., p. 
XX ; Baudissin, Einleitung, p. 283. On Daniel see the commentaries by Driver, 
Marti, Behrmann, Bevan, and Prince. 



Paet Sixth 



THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HYMNAL 
LITERATURE 

XVni. The Priestly Element in the Psalter. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE — THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE PSALTER. 

§ 247. The Scope of the Priestly Element in the Psalter. — The Psalter 
was used in the ritual of worship. But more than this ; a consider- 
able portion of it had its origin in connection with such ritual. It 
was, therefore, very largely a result, directly or indirectly, of the 
priestly activity. Its outward form (§259) shows many peculiarities 
which are distinctly priestly. It abounds in allusions (§§ 261 ff.) to the 
priest, the place of worship, feasts, etc. Its principal contents consist 
of prayers and songs of praise (§§ 265 f.), that is, material intended for 
use in worship. Much of the composition, although by no means all, 
may, indeed, be attributed to priests, or guilds of priests. 

§ 248. Other Elements than the Priestly occupy a large 
place in the Psalter. This is due to the fact that at the 
late period in Hebrew history in which the Psalter finally 
took on its present form the work of the prophets for 
the most part had been concluded ; the work also of the 
sage had taken strong hold upon the people, and conse- 
quently much of the teaching of both these classes had 
been absorbed into the general thought and opinion of 
the times. Accordingly, we may be prepared to find in Pss. 15, 19, 32, 46, 
this collection a very large prophetic element, and a ^^'^" 
smaller amount of the wisdom material. At the same 
time, it may fairly be claimed that the priestly element 
dominates ; for in fact, the Psalter has shown itself to be 
the greatest help to worship that history has known. 

§249. Constructive Study. — Take up Pss. 72-99, and Pss. 72-99. 
distinguish each as predominantly prophetic, priestly, or 
philosophic (that is, as exhibiting the wisdom element). 

§250. Many Important Problems present themselves to the student 
of the Psalter ; most of these require at least a tentative solution before 
the more general questions can be satisfactorily considered. Among 
such problems are the following : 

I. Are the superscriptions, of which so many are found in the 
Psalter, a part of the psalm in each case, and consequently authorita- 

233 



2 34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

tive ? Or are they from a much later date, and consequently to be 
treated only as editorial and unauthoritative suggestions ? 

2. May we expect to find, in connection with each of the psalms, a 
historical background, similar to that which, in recent years, has been 
emphasized so strongly in connection with the sermons of prophets, 
and the different codes of legislation ? 

3. Did David really write all the psalms attributed to him, or any 
considerable portion of them ? Is it reasonable any longer to suppose 
that any of the psalms in this collection come from so early a period 
as the reign of David ? 

4. Is the " I " which plays so important a part in the psalms an 
individual, or is it a personification of the Israelitish community? 

5. Are there psalms in the Psalter which come from as late a date 
as the times of the Maccabees, /. e., 168 to 161 B. C? 

6. To what extent may it be supposed that editorial work has been 
done on the collection as a whole, and in connection with individual 
psalms ? 

§ 251. Of What Authority Are the Superscriptions? — 
In answering this question, consider — 
^^^A ^i' ^?' ^'*' ^^' I- The form and content, and note that they are 

ID, 17, 19, 20, 21, -' ' ■' 

23,24,25,35,37, complete sentences, or detached phrases which srive 

42,50,72,87,90. r ' JT o 

Pss. 3, 7, 18, 30, information, more or less definite, concerning the 
34, 51,52, 54, 56, 
57,60,63,92,100, authorship, or the circumstances out of which a psalm 

TOO— IQ4 1^2 

Pss. 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, grew, or matters of a musical or liturgical character ; and 
22,45,61,62,84, ^j^^^ g^^j^ superscriptions are rarely found outside of the 

'la?.//.. Psalter. 

2. Their origin, and determine whether they are to be 
regarded as coming from the author of the psalm in 
each case ; or from contemporaries of the author ; or from 
editors or collectors living long after the original produc- 
tion of the psalm. 

3. Their authority, and note : 

(a) The considerations which may be urged in favor 
of this authority, viz., the fact that they evidently are 

xChron.i5:2o,2i. very old — so old, indeed, that to the writer of i Chron. 
15:20, 21, the Hebrew words had lost their meaning; 
the fact that in the Hebrew they form an organic part of 

Pss. 51, 54, 59. the psalm itself ; the fact that, in some cases at least, the 
substance of the superscription seems to be entirely con- 
sistent with the content of the psalm; the fact, also, that 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 235 

they are not distributed indiscriminately, but evidently 
were intended to subserve a particular purpose. 

(3) The considerations which are urged as opposing 
their authority, viz., the fact that very frequently the 
manuscripts and versions differ, while the Septuagint 
and the Peshitto present many deviations and additions,' 
thus indicating that even in the most ancient days there 
were many differences of opinion; the fact that the Pss. 27, 74, 79. 
superscription in many cases is plainly inconsistent with 
the content of the psalm ; the fact that so few authors 
are named, when probably there were many; the fact, 
also, that statements referring to historical circumstances 
are limited to psalms ascribed to David. 

4. The tests to which they must be subjected, viz.: {a) 
that of linguistic and rhetorical consistency when exam- 
ined with reference to the content of the psalm ; {p) that 
of historical and logical consistency with the content of 
the psalm. 

In all this each superscription should be taken up 
for separate consideration. 

§252. Constructive Study. — Examine a series of 
superscriptions and tabulate the questions suggested by e. g., Pss. 18, 7a, 

QO ^ 7 IQ 22 

each case, with the results which may fairly be accepted 23! 34, 45, 51, 60', 
in each instance. 

§253. Is there an Historical Element in the Psalter, like 
that which has been found to form the background of 
Old Testament prophecy and Old Testament legislation? 
That is, can we find any connection between these psalms 
and the history of the people in the midst of which 
they were first uttered? Did Israel's history, or did the 
experiences of Israel's leaders, find expression in the 
Psalms? 

I. Consider, now, the various kinds of psalms which 
may be thought of as in one way or another historical : 

* See W. T. Davison, art. " Psalms," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 
IV, p. 150; KiRKPATRiCK, The Book of Psalms, Books IV and V (1901), pp. xxxi f.; 
Driver, Introduction to the Literattire of the Old Testament (6th ed., 1897), pp. 370 f.; 
Baethgen, Z>z> Psalmen (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 2d ed., 1897), 
p. v; DuHM, Die Psalmen ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899), 
p. xvii. 



236 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Pss. 106, 78. (a) Certain psalms describe in a concrete way certain 

historical events, either individual or national; may 
these, and others like them, be called objectively historical? 

^^6 60" 6^1 '2"^^' ^^^ Certain psalms, although not descriptive of his- 

torical events, may be regarded as the outgrowth, and in 
themselves the expression, of an historical event — sub- 
jectively historical. 

Pss. 22, 51, 69, 84, (^) Certain psalms may be regarded as the expression, 

although not the description, of individual experience. 

2. Note some points of general interest in respect to 
the historical element in the Psalms : 

(a) The absence, in general, of distinct allusion to 
specific historical events. How far may this be explained 
(i) on the ground of the lyric character of the Psalms? 

(2) On the ground of the divine purpose as to the use of 
the Psalter as a hymn-book for all ages? (3) On the 
supposition that changes and omissions have been intro- 
duced throughout the centuries, as editors have trans- 
mitted the collection from hand to hand? 

if) The great importance of discovering this histori- 
cal element wherever possible (i) for the sake of the 
freshness and vividness which is thereby added to the 
material ; (2) for the sake of the new historical data thus 
brought to light ; (3) for the sake of the evidence thus 
gained respecting the growth and development of 
psalmody. 

3. Still further, make a study of three closely related 
points, viz.: 

{a) The sources from which help may be obtained 
for reaching a decision on these questions, e. g.^ (i) bib- 
lical history ; (2) the style and language of the Psalms ; 

(3) the present position and arrangement in the Psalter; 
and (4) the superscriptions. 

{b) The character of the knowledge thus obtained : is 
it definite? is it trustworthy? is it abundant? 

{c) The analogy furnished by a study of the modern 
hymn-book. 
Pss. 78, 81, 105, §254. Constructive Study. — Examine certain psalms ; 
79,'i2M37t' ^*' and (i) classify each under one of the heads (i. {a) (b) 
and (c)) indicated above ; (2) point out in detail and dis- 
cuss the historical element which you find. 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 237 

§255. What Is David's Place in Connection with the 
Psalter? — Perhaps no problem more important than this 
may be found in Old Testament literature. It is well 
worth while to examine into the scope and the signifi- 
cance of this problem. Consider, therefore — Pgg' 59^54^^56 

1. The psalms assigned to David by tradition — in il^'m\^^i(?)' 

all seventy-three, and ordinarily classified by periods as "'55- 

Pss. loi, 15, 24, 
follows: (a) psalms reflecting his early life; (<$) psalms 68.132,30. 

connected with Saul's persecution ; (c) psalms connected 60,18.* -"o. 2, 

with the removal of the ark: (d) psalms connected with Pss. 51,32. 

Pss. 63, 3, 4, 23, 

David's v/ars ; (e) psalms connected with David's fall: 26,62,27,28,41, 

55, 69, 109. 
(/) psalms connected with his flight from Absalom ; (g) pss. 5, 9, 11-14, 

others not definitely connected with any period. 36^40,' 53,' 58,' 61,' 

2. The reasons urged for the probability of so large 108, io9?i22,' 124,' 
a number of Davidic psalms, e. g. : JJJj 143-^45.*^ ~ 

{a) The period preceding David was just what would 
have been expected to produce such a result, since it 
included, e. g., (i) the religious revival under Samuel ; 
(2) a wonderful activity on the part of the prophets, like 
Samuel, Gad, Nathan ; (3) the founding of the prophetic 
schools ; (4) a marked degree of development in the way 
of spiritual activity. 

{b) The times of David furnished an excellent basis 

for these psalms, since they were times of national 

struggle, of multiform experience, of high aspiration. 

(c) The several historical references to David as a i Sam. 16:17, iS; 

, , . , . , . 18:10: 2 Sam. 

musician and a poet substantiate this claim. 1:19-27; Amos 

6:5. 
{d) The many-sidedness of David's character as it is 

revealed in his private life, as shepherd, soldier, states- 
man ; priest, prophet, king ; friend, father, leader. 

(<?) The overwhelming evidence furnished by the 
superscriptions, which, at all events, show that from very 
early times David was regarded as the author. 

(/) The ease with which the events of David's life 
may be fitted into connection with the content of the 
Psalms.' 

'On this point the following statements present the opposing views : " References 
to the more remarkable passages in David's life occur in places without number. 
There are psalms, not a few, which it is impossible for anyone to read without being 
reminded that they are his." — Binnie, The Psalms. 

The view that these psalms come from David " implies absolute incapacity to 



238 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

3. The reasons urged against the probability of so 
large a number of Davidic psalms : 

(a) The uniform tendency of tradition to magnify 

the work of a particular man ; as seen in the parallel 

cases of Moses, to whom all Hebrew legislation is 

E. ^., Lev. 1:1; ascribed : Isaiah, to whom the work of four or more 
4:1; Deut. 27 : 

i; Prov. 1:1; prophets is ascribed : and Solomon, to whom so larefe a 
Eccl. 1:1;^^ ' ° 

Cant. I : I. portion of the wisdom literature is assigned. 

^.^.,Pss. 3,18, (d) The fact that only in the case of psalms assigned 

to David are the circumstances of occasion or origin 
indicated. 

iE'.^.,Pss. 122, (<:) The certainty that in many cases the assignment 

to David is unquestionably wrong; and, with this, the 
unreliable character in general of the superscriptions. 

(d) The difficulty involved in the proposition that 
the composition of psalms was thus restricted to so few 
periods. Were there not many historical situations in 
which conditions existed favorable to psalmody ? 

(e) The difficulties involved in the proposition that 
psalms which represent the highest and latest stage of 
Israelitish spiritual development should have had their 
origin (i) before the work and utterances of a single 

c/. Pss.90, 97. prophet of those who have written; (2) before there was 
any considerable acceptance on the part of the Israelitish 

c/. Pss. 91, 96. nation of the doctrine of one God ; (3) during a period 
when Israel was steeped in superstition and continually 

c/. Pss. 86, 39. relapsing into idolatry of the foulest character ; (4) in 
connection with the life of a king characterized by a 
spirit at once fierce and warlike, and by a life abounding 
in the most heinous crimes, among which were adultery 
and murder. 

4. The views presented in some of the more impor- 
tant contributions to the subject, e.g.: Konig (1893) 
maintains the historical probability of the Davidic author- 
ship of certain psalms and finds no objection to assigning 
3, 4, 6, 7, 8, II, 15, 18, 23, 29, 30, and 32 to David. 
Driver {Introduction, 6th ed., 1897) grants that a majority 

understand the difference between old Israel and later Judaism, and makes almost 
anything possible in the way of ascription of comparatively modern pieces to ancient 
authors." — W. R. Smith, EncyclopcBdia Biblica, col. 393 1* 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 239 

of the "Davidic" psalms are not David's, but insists 
upon the possibility of Davidic psalms, and declares that 
if there are any such, they may safely be looked for 
among those on Ewald's list, which is possibly too large. 
Baethgen (1897) says, *'of the seventy-three psalms 
ascribed to David, in the case of only a few at the most 
can Davidic authorship be defended with any plausibility, 
^' S-i 3> 4> iSj ^nd that even for these the supposition of 
a later redaction is hardly to be avoided." Wellhausen 
(1898) says : "It is not a question whether there be any 
post-exilic psalms, but rather whether the psalms contain 
any poems written before the exile." Duhm (1899) 
denies the existence of any Davidic psalms, and is 
doubtful whether any psalms come from a time earlier 
than the Greek period. Kirkpatrick (1901) argues for 
the Davidic authorship of Ps. 18, and adds: "If this be 
acknowledged, important consequences follow. For 
depth of devotion, simplicity of trust, joyousness of 
gratitude, and confidence of hope, not less than for its 
natural force and poetic beauty, that psalm has few 
rivals. It has all the freshness of creative genius. It 
can hardly have been the solitary production of its 
author. If such a psalm could have been written by 
David, so might many others." Cheyne i^Encyclopcedia 
Bibltca) denies the historical possibility of Davidic 
psalms in our Psalter, and explains the superscription of 
David 2iS a corruption of an original of Jedithun? 

5. The various tests to which each psalm, thought to 
be Davidic, must be subjected, viz.: 

{a) The historical test ; that is : Is the background 
of the psalm in harmony with the conditions of David's 
time? Are the historical and social presuppositions of 
the psalm met by the facts of the Davidic period ? 

(3) The theological test ; that is : Are the ideas con- 
cerning God, man, and sin which the psalm reflects in 
k-eeping with the stage of theological thought to which 
David and his contemporaries may fairly be said to have 
belonged ? 

{c) The rhetorical test ; that is : Are the poetical 

3See also pp. 23 f. 



240 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

form and the general literary style such as were charac- 
teristic of the earlier days of Hebrew poetry ? 

{d) The grammatical test; that is : Are the syntax, 
the order of words, the structure of sentences, and the 
grammatical forms such as are found in the earlier stages 
of the language of the Old Testament ? 

{e) The vocabulary test ; that is : Is the language of 
the psalm the pure Hebrew of the Davidic age, or does 
it contain Aramaic, Persian, and Greek words, so many 
of which crowded into the Hebrew speech in the course 
of the later history ? 

§256. Constructive Study. — Select from each of the 
following groups of psalms one or more, and apply the 
tests suggested above : 

Pss. 122, 124, 131, I. Psalms which, although assigned by tradition to 

David, are almost universally believed to be wrongly so 
assigned. 

Pss. 3, 4, 7, ". 18, 2. Psalms which are certainly to be regarded as 

Davidic, if there are any Davidic psalms. 

Pss. 8, 19, 22, 23, 3. Psalms which, while assigned to David by some 

34,25,32,37. . , . . , , 

eminent authorities, are, to say the least, uncertain. 

§257. Constructive Study. — Formulate a statement which will pre- 
sent briefly what is involved in a decision to assign no psalms to David, 
in contrast with the traditional view ascribing to him seventy-three, or 
even a more liberal position ascribing ten or twelve. 

§258. Does the "I** of the Psalter represent an 
individual, or the entire Israelitish community ? Con- 
sider, in connection with this problem, the following 
points : 

1 . The use of the rhetorical figure, termed personifica- 
tion in general literature.'* 

2. The use of personification by the Arabs in the 
effort to find concrete expression for the origin of a tribe 
or community .5 

* On the general subject of personification see especially Freytag, Technique of 
the Drama, trans, by E. J. MacEwan (3d ed., 1900), pp. 246 £f. 

SW. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885, 2d ed., 1903), 
pp. 20 f. 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 24 1 

-i. Some specific examples: ;«^= Egyptians (Exod. ^.^., Numb. 20: 

X , , r . , ; . , J ^8,19; isa. 12: 

14:15); and the frequent interchange of singular and i,2;25:i;26: 

plural. Mic. 7:7-10;' 

^ . , - . - . . , Lam. I : ii3-i6, 

4. Some important examples of personification in the 18-22; isa. 61: 
Old Testament : 

(a) The servant of Jehovah^ under which figure is set isa., chaps. 40-55. 
forth the mission of the community of pious Jews as the 
representative of Jehovah in a wicked world. 

{h) The character of Job in the Book of Job; under 
the guise of a person, the sufferings of the Jewish com- 
munity at the hands of heathen oppressors are portrayed 
and discussed, the poet setting forth the doubts and 
questions which arose in the minds of pious Jews, the 
various theories proposed in explanation of the suffer- 
ings, and his own point of view. 

(^) The common practice of the prophets, e. g., Amos's Am. 5: i ff. 
dirge over the approaching destruction of northern 
Israel ; Hosea's representation of Israel as the bride of hos., chap. 2. 
Jehovah ; the representation of Jerusalem as a person in isa., chap. 60. 
Isaiah; Ezekiel's characterization of Samaria and Jerusa- Ezek., chap. 23. 
lem as two harlots ; and the use of the title " virgin 
daughter of Israel." 

5. Some of the points involved in interpreting the 
**I" as of the community : 

{a) If the " I " be the community of Israel, and the 
statements made represent the thought of the community 
as a whole, will it be necessary to find a date for these 
psalms in which there was a fair degree of unanimity of 
opinion in the community? 

ip) If these psalms are the expression of the heart of 
the community at large, could they have been written at 
a time when the prophets and priests were in definite 
conflict with each other, /. ^., down until 621 B. C? 

(c) When, as a matter of fact, did there first come to 
be a community feeling in Israel? 

{d) Is a difference to be found between national 
feeling and community feeling? If so, in what does 
this consist? Is the idea of a church-nation evident? 

{e) Is it, in general, true that the community inter- 
pretation requires a later date for the psalms than the 
individual interpretation? 



242 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(/) Would the following description of the "I" 
meet the demands of the case, viz.: "the company of 
faithful Israelites and diligent frequenters of the temple 
who formed the kernel of the post-exilic Judean com- 
munity"? 

{g) Would one expect to find, at this age of religious 
development, in a hymn-book intended for a community 
and for public worship, psalms of so strongly marked 
an individual character? 

{K) Is it not true, on the other hand, that the lyric 
poet always generalizes, and that, while describing his 
own experiences, he really includes all whose situation is 
like his own? 

(/) Are not these psalms, when interpreted of the 
community, much more significant? 

(y) Is it also true that a writer may as a representa- 
tive include with himself a few others, perhaps an entire 
party, who have the same feelings with himself? 

§ 2 59. Constructive Study. — Take up, now, the special 

study of certain passages, and determine whether, on the 

whole, the individual, or the community interpretation 

Pss. 44:4,6, 15; seems more fitting, e. g.: 

66:i3ff. ;'7i; I. A group which most modern writers would regard 

74:12; 89:50; . . 

102; 118. as representing the community. 

Pss. 7; 9; 10; 28; 2. A group thought by some to have as subject the 

godly portion of the community. 

P^-,44;56;57; 3. A group thought by some to have as subject the 

»45. nation as a whole. 

§ 260. Did Any Psalms Have Their Origin in the Maccabean Period 

(/. <f., 1 68-1 6 1 B. C.)? — Consider, in this connection: 

1. The question of the close of the Old Testament canon. When 
may this be supposed to have happened, and under what circumstances? 
What bearing on this question does the book of Ecclesiasticus (see 
Prologue) have? And, further, in what relation with this event does 
the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes stand? 

2. The question of the age of the Book of Daniel; e. g.: {a) What 
considerations may be urged against the older view which placed the 
book in the days of the exile, and in favor of the modern view which 
assigns it to the age of the Maccabees? {b) What important difference 
in the interpretation of chap. 11 turns on this decision? 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 243 

3. The question of the origin and date of the Septuagint; e. g.: (a) 
Could books have found their place in the canon as late as 161 B. C, 
and yet have secured a place in the Greek version? (d) At what 
periods were the various divisions of the Old Testament translated into 
Greek? (c) The significance of the fact that the Septuagint includes a 
psalm not found in the Hebrew. 

4. The special circumstances of the Maccabean times which cannot 
be found in connection with any earlier period of Israelitish history; 
e.g.: (a) a time when protestation of national innocence was possible 
(^/. Ps. 44); {b) a time when synagogues were in existence [cf. Ps. 
74:8); {c) a time when Israel and the opposing nations constitute the 
two classes mentioned. 

§261. Constructive Study. — Take up certain psalms, 
and determine for yourself whether they seem to fit into 
the Maccabean times; e. g.: 

1. Certain psalms, generally acknowledged to be Pss. 44. 74, 79, 83. 
Maccabean. 

2. Certain psalms concerning: which there is con- Pss. 80,60, 

'A Kl A K. "3-II8. 

siderable doubt. 

3. Certain psalms concerning which there is still a Pss. 20,21,33,101. 
greater degree of doubt. 

§ 262. In What Ways Did the Editorial Factor Enter 
into the Psalter? — This question can only be touched 
upon. Consider — 

1. The editorial element which appears in connec- 
tion with the superscriptions (see above, § 251), a work 
involving selection, arrangement, interpretation, and 
designation as to use. Is there evidence of difference of 
opinion in this work ? 

2. The editorial work suggested by the fact that the 
Greek text (Septuagint) has a psalm not contained in the Ps. 151. 
Hebrew Psalter, concerning David as a shepherd. 

3. The editorial work to be inferred from {a) the 

fact that Pss. 42, 43, now two, were quite certainly one Pss.42, 43,113,114. 

at an earlier time ; cf. also Pss. 113, 114; and (3) the fact . 

that Ps. 24, now one, was perhaps originally two, vss. Pss. 24, 27, 3a. 

1-6 and vss. 7-10 being separate pieces; cf. also Ps. 

27 : 1-6 and 7-14; Ps. 32 : 1-7 and 8-1 1. 

4. The editorial work implied in the two editions of 

the same psalm which are to be found, in which one Ps. 18 and a Sam., 
*■ chap. 22. 



244 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

word in every four shows a variation, the more common 
of which may be classified as (a) the incorporation of 
glosses, (d) correction of harsh and unusual terms, (c) 
alterations for the purpose of securing greater harmony, 
or of removing words which were objectionable from the 
dogmatic point of view.^ 

5. Editorial work which went so far as to add new 
Ps. 51:18, 19. verses to an old psalm. 

6. Who these editors were ; <f. g., those connected 
with the song service of the temple ? prophets ? priests ? 
scribes ? 

§263. Constructive Study. — Select from any part of 

-ff.^.,Pss. 72-76. the Psalter half a dozen psalms, and, taking them up one 
by one, tabulate carefully anything that looks like edito- 
rial work. 

§ 264. The Pritstly Factor in the Psalter is plainly 
discernible in certain external elements affecting its out- 
ward form and use : 

Ps. 41:13. I. Read the doxology which closes Book I; compare 

Pss. 72:18, 19; the similar doxologies in other psalms, and note that by 

150. * ' means of these doxologies the Psalter is divided intoyfz^^ 

books. Was this suggested by the division of the /aw 

into five books ? May both arrangements be ascribed 

to the priests ? 

^.^., Pss. 51:7, 2. Examine the phraseology, tone, and style of sev- 

6;'65:'i-3';74:i- cral passages, and observe how definitely all this points 
to the priest. 

Ps. 24. 3. Note, (a) in Ps. 24, the question asked in vs. 3, 

with the answer given in vss. 4-6 ; likewise, (b) the simi- 
lar interchange of general statement, answer, and ques- 

Pss.42, 43. tion in vss. 7-10; (c) the thrice-recurring refrain in Pss. 

42, 43 (vss. 5, II, and vs. 5) ; (d) the monotonous refrain 

Ps. 136. in Ps. 136; and consider whether these examples do not 

seem to show that, in some cases at least, there was 
antiphonal singing by divisions of the temple choir, as 
well as that the psalms were used in public song. Con- 
sider also {e) the many musical terms employed. 

Pss. 122, 124, 134. 4. Examine Pss. 122, 124, 134, and consider their 

^ Cf. W. H. Bennett, "Notes on a Comparison of Psalm XVIII with 2 Sam. 
XXII," Hebraica, Vol. Ill, pp. 65-86. 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 245 

adaptation to the purpose which seems to be suggested 
in their title, "Songs of Ascents," viz., songs sung by 
companies of pilgrims on their way to the temple at 
Jerusalem. With what spirit is the temple itself re- 
garded ? 

5. Read carefully the group of psalms numbered 
146-150, and note that the entire content is an invita- Pss. 146-150. 
tion or call to worship — exhortations to the whole con- 
gregation of worshipers to sing praises to Jehovah. 

6. Consider the use of certain psalms in connection Pss. 81:1-5; 

^ 33 : 1-3 ; 98 : 4-6. 

with special occasions of worship; e. g.: (a) with feasts; i Chron. 15 : 16-28. 

(d) with the temple-worship ; (<r) with the dedication of 35 f "38,^40^43. 

the wall at Jerusalem; (d) with the bringing up of the ^'Ce^^/^'pss'^" 

ark to Jerusalem. H^'loi^Kf'^' 

§265. Constructive Study. — Summarize the material suggested in 

§ 264, and formulate a statement on the priestly element in the Psalter 
as seen in the external use. 

§266. References to the Priett are found in the Pss. 58:64; 99:6; 

Psalter. What, briefly, is the evidence furnished by these 30 f'.; 110:4; 

1 1 • • . 1 1 • • n 115: 10, 12; 

passages concerning the priest, his position, and his inilu- "8:3; 132 : 9. 

-. 16; 134:1-3; 

ence r 135:19*. 

§267. References to the Place of Worship are found Pss. 5:7; 11:4; 

20 : 2 : 22 : 25 * 24 : 

in the Psalter. What may be inferred from this material 3; 26:6-8, '12; 

1 -1 /■ , 1 . -. , 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 

concerning the attitude of the psalmists toward the 29:9; 36:8; 40: 

1 J -4. u- :> 9;42:4;43:3f.; 

temple and Its worship ? 46:4;48:if., 

§ 268. Referencts to Sacrifice are found in the Psalter. 52:8; 55:14;' 

What light do these references throw upon the subject of i! it '66^13; 68 i 

the priestly tone and spirit of the Psalter? What is the 9; 73': '17' -^74:^' 

attitude of the psalmists toward sacrifice? 13; 78:54, 58, 

§269. References to Feasts are found in the Psalter. ps8.'4:5;'2o:3; 

Consider also the significance of the Psalms of Ascents in }J, 23;^ 51:1 el, 

this connection.^ Do the psalms furnish any evidence 66:?3,'iV;^96:"; 

as to the ideas concerning feasts at the time of their J^:'22':^^i6:'i7; 

composition? x."^'^^' 

^ Pss. 4 : 7 ; 81 : 3. 
§270. The Very Essence of the Psalter is Priestly, 

since in its purpose and contents it may be explained 

7 On these psalms see the literature cited on p. 106, note lO; also Baethgen, 
£>te Psalmen ilbersetzt und erkldrt (" Handkommentar," u. s. w.; 2d ed., 1897), pp. 
xvii f.; W. T. Davison, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 153 f.; 
and the commentaries of Ewald and Delitzsch, in loc. 



246 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See, ^.^.,Pss. 69, only as a Book of Worship. In this rearard it may be con- 

88,17,26,143. ., ,, . • / r . -,. . 

See, ^.^.,Pss. 29, sidered from three points of view, accordinsr as it served 

95' 113) I35» 9» 

103. the purpose of (i) Book of Prayer, for the Israel itish 

91,23,73. ' church; (2) Book of Praise; (3) Manual of. Personal 

^^' ^' ' Communion with God. 

§ 27 1. The Psalter as a Book of Prayer. — Note that — 

I. Sometimes throughout an entire psalm the tone is 

Cf. Ps. 21:1-21 that of supplication or penitence, or both ; while at other 
with Ps. 22: 22- . , ^^ ^ ,. . . , , . , , 

31. times the tone or supplication with which the psalm 

begins passes over into one of triumphant praise. 

Pss. 80, 85, 90, 123. 2. Sometimes the prayer is unquestionably the formal 

prayer spoken by the congregation as such ; while at 
other times the prayer is clearly that of an individual 
soul "in converse with God, disclosing to him its mani- 
fold emotions, desires, aspirations, or fears." 

3. The Psalter is as definitely a prayer-book as it is a 
hymn-book, and to be interpreted as such. 

§ 272. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the 
following assignments of work : 

Pss. 69, 88, 79, 74, la. Examine carefully certain prayers offered for 

deliverance, and analyze the thought which they contain, 
in order to determine, e. g., (a) the nature of the calumny 
or trouble from which deliverance is sought; (d) the out- 
ward circumstances of the suffering described; (<r) the 
grounds on which petition for relief is based; (d) the 
extent to which faith exists that deliverance will ulti- 
mately be secured ; (e) the stage of religious thought 
marked by these utterances. 

2 Kings 19: 15-19; i<5. Study in the same way similar utterances found 

7:5; Jon. 2: 1-9; outside of the Psalter, and note the points of difference. 

Pss. 17, 26. 55,^57, 2a. Examine certain prayers which demand from God 

^^'^°' vindication of character; and analyze the thought pre- 

sented, in order to formulate, e. g., (a) the nature of the 
accusation which seems to have been preferred against 
the defendant; (^) the injury which he is represented 
as having suffered in consequence; (c) the grounds 
on which the demand for vindication is made ; (d) the 
measure of the suppliant's consciousness of rectitude; 
(e) the stage of religious development suggested by 
these utterances. 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 247 

2b. Study in the same way similar pieces found out- isa.57:if-; Job, 

■' '' chaps. 22, 30. 

side of the Psalter, and note any points of difference. 

3«. Examine passages containing petition ior guidance Pss. 143, 61, 86, 
in the midst of danger and difficulty; and analyze the 
same in order to determine, e. g., (a) the nature of the 
trouble or difficulty in which the suppliant finds him- 
self; (b) the historical background which is implied ; (<r) 
the tone of the supplication put forth for guidance ; (d) 
the degree of expectation which is exhibited as to the 
answer to be vouchsafed ; {e) the stage of religious 
development indicated. 

3^. Study in the same way similar utterances found Numb. 11:10-15; 
^ J ■> Jos, 7:6-9; 

outside the Psalter, and note the points of difference. iSam. 23:2. 

7-12; 30: 7 f. 
4. Examine certain prayers which exhibit more of the 

element of contemplation; and analyze the thought -£". ^., Pss. 77, 73, 

expressed, adopting as the basis of analysis your own 

form of logical development. 

§ 273. The Psalter as a Book of Praise. — Observe — 

1. That the very name of the Hebrew Psalter {t^KtUim) 

means " praise-son^s ; " and that still other words ^.^., Pss. 66, 

112, 113. 
expressing various phases of the idea of song are em- 
ployed. 

2. That in many cases the tone of prayer passes into -£". jr.,Pss. 13, 22, 

•' f J f 27,28,106,138. 

that of praise, and in still others, the tone of praise 

passes into that of prayer. 

3. That everything of a musical character points to 
the use of the psalms as media oi praise. 

§274. Constructire Studies. — Take up, in turn, the 

following assignments of work : 

la. Examine carefully certain praise-son^s, in which ^..^., Pss. 65,107, 

"4, 124, 136. 
the author seeks to find expression for the praise of 

God because of the manifestation of his power ; and 

analyze the thought according as it is related to (a) the 

writer's situation; (d) the form of manifestation of the 

divine power; (c) the way in which the writer's situation 

has been affected by this particular manifestation ; (d) 

the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances. 

id. Study in the same way similar utterances found -£.^., isa.,chap. 

outside the Psalter and note points of similarity and 15.' 

difference. 



248 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Pss. 104, 103, 48, 2a. Examine certain praise sonsrs, in which the writer 
46, 146, 147. ^ ° 

seeks to find expression for praise of God, on the ground 

of what he is^ perhaps, in history or in nature ; in other 
words, his attributes, analyzing the thought with refer- 
ence to {a) the writer's situation ; (p) the particular attri- 
butes referred to; {c) the bearing upon the writer's, 
position ; (^) the stage of religious thought marked by 
these utterances. 

-s.£., Job, chaps. 2b. Take up, in the same way, similar utterances 
36, 37, 38, 39; ^ -^ 

^sa-^ 40^ .27-31 ; outside the Psalter, and note points of similarity and 

18 f. 563: 7-19. difference. 

§275. The Psalter as a Manual of Personal Communion with God. — 

Observe — 

1. " The surprising variety of mood and subject and occasion in the 
Psalms which gives them their catholicity, and, combined with their 
deep spirituality, adapts them to be" a manual of meditation and 
communion. 

2. The strange and significant expression of the community-feeling 
in the personified " I " — a fact which adds greatly to the use of the book 
for practical and devotional purposes. 

3. The incomparable freedom with which the soul is represented as 
in converse with the Deity, laying bare its inmost feelings. 

. §276. Constructive Studies. — Take up the following 

lines of work : 

Pss. 46, 64, 102. \a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to 

{a) the position of the author ; (^) his relation of trust and 

dependence on God ; (c) the analysis of this feeling ; {d) 

the conception of God which underlies it. 

jer. 2o:7-i3;isa., \b. A similar examination of certain passages outside 

chap. 26. , , -r. , AC 

of the Psalter. 

Pss. 51,38,39. 2a. An examination of certain psalms, with a view 

to (a) the position of the author ; (^) the consciousness 

before God of the "exceeding sinfulness of sin," and an 

intense longing for forgiveness ; (c) the analysis of this 

Ezra, chap. 9; feeling: {d\ the conception of God which underlies it. 
Lev., chap. 16; & ' \ / r 

isa.,chap. I, 2b, A similar examination of certain passasres outside 

6:5; Am. 5 : r o 

10-15. of the Psalter. 

Pss. 42, 22, 13. 3«. An examination of certain psalms with a view to 

{a) the psalmist's position; {p) his longing for com- 
munion with God; {c) the analysis of this feeling; (d) 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 249 

the conception of God which underlies it; (e) the custom 

referred to in this psalm of praising God in public 

worship. 

^d. A similar examination of certain passages outside Lam., chap. 5; 
f.u TD u isa., 63: 15-64: 

of the Psalter. 12. 

4a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to Pss. 91,23,73. 
(a) the psalmist's position ; (d) the confidence, security, 
joy, and comfort resulting from fellowship with God; 
(c) the analysis of this feeling ; (d) the underlying con- 
ception of God. 

Ad. A similar examination of certain passages outside Deut. 33:26-29; 

Am. 7:10-17; 

of the Psalter. jer. 20:7-13; 

„ Josh, i: i-ii. 

§277. The Significance of the Psalter as Related to 
the Priestly System. — Consider, now — 

1. The various elements of worship that have found tangible expres- 
sion in the Psalter, <f. ^., prayer, praise, penitence, gratitude, thanks- 
giving, trust, fellowship with God; and discover, if possible, any 
fundamental religious emotion which does not find full expression in it. 

2. The full and definite evidence cited that the Psalter (a) had its 
origin in connection with the temple-worship; (3) was largely the 
creative work of the priests ; (c) exercised great influence upon the 
priests ; (d) was employed as a manual of temple-worship ; (e) served 
also as a manual of private individual devotion. And, in view of all 
this, ask yourself the following questions : 

(a) If all this is a part of the priestly system of the Old Testament, 
what is the conception of this priestly work which we must hold? 

(d) Could a priestly system, including as its climax a hymnal, 
breathing a devotion so rich, be wholly formal and mechanical, devoid 
of life and of spiritual power? 

(c) Could such a hymnal have owed its origin to a body of priests 
who were strangers to the spiritual and altogether slaves of the formal? 

(d) Is there any higher type of spirituality in the Old Testament 
than that which is thus represented by the Psalter? 

(e) Is it, then, true or untrue that the highest type of spiritual life 
known in the Old Testament is oi priestly ongin, priestly environment, 
and on 2i priestly basis? 

§278. Literature to be Consulted.® 

H. EwALD, Commentary on the /'ja/awj (183S, 3d ed. 1866, transl. 1880); Isaac 
Taylor, The Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry (1861); Perowne, The Book of Psalms, 

^Of the extensive literature on the Psalter only the more recent and important 
works of an exegetical and critical character are cited here. 



250 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

with Introductions and Notes, explanatory and critical (1864, 8th ed. 1892); Franz 
Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Psalms (1867, 4th ed. 1883 [transl. 1887- 
89], 5th ed. 1894); The Psalms Chronologically Arranged hy FouR Friends (1867, 2d 
ed. 1891); W.Kay, The Psalms, with Notes (i87i,2d ed. 1874); A. C.Jennings 
AND W. H. Lowe, The Psalms, with Introductions and Critical Notes (1875-77); 
T. C. '^V'S.'B.K^ , lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms (1880); W. R. 
Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, Lectme VII(i88i,2d ed. 1892); 
C. H. Toy, " Date of the Korah Psalms," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. IV 
(1884), pp. 80-92; Idem, "On the Asaph-Psalms," ibid.. Vol. VI (1886), pp. 73-85; 
Binnie, The Psalms, Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886); C. II. Toy, "Rise 
of Hebrew Psalm-Writing," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. VII, pp. 47-60 ; T. K. 
Cheyne, The Book of Psalms: A New Translation, with Commentary {1%'^%)', C. G. 
MoNTEFiORE, " Mystic Passages in the Psalms," /<?z£;w/% Quarterly Review, Vol. I (1889), 
pp. 143 ff.; A. Neubauer, "On the Titles of the Psalms According to Early Jewish 
Authorities," Studia Biblica, Vol. II (1890), pp. 1-58; S. R. T^savy.^, Introduction 
to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 359-91; A. F. KiRK- 
PATRICK, The Book of Psalms, with Introduction and Notes, 3 vols. ("The Cam- 
bridge Bible," 1891-1901); T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism 
(1892), pp. 129 £f.; W. T. Davison, The Praises of Israel (1893, 2d ed. 1898); J. 
P. Peters, "The Development of the Psalter," The New World, 1893, PP- 203 ff.; A. 
Maclaren, The Psalms ("Expositor's Bible," 1893-94); J. Sharpe, The Student's 
Handbook to the Psalms {iSg 4) ; T. K. Abbot, "On the Alphabetical Arrangement 
of Ps. IX and X, with Some Other Emendations," Zeitschrift f d. alttest. Wissenschaft, 
VoL XVI (1896), pp. 292-94; J. W. Beardslee, "The Imprecatory Psalms," 7V«- 
byterian and Reformed Review, 1897, pp. 490-505; T. K. Cheyne, "The Book of 
Psalms ; Its Origin and its Relation to Zoroastrianism," Semitic Studies in Memory 
of Alexander Kohut (1897), pp. 111-19; F. Buhl, "The Aid of Criticism in the 
Interpretation of the Psalms," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 
763-75; E.G.King, The Psalms in Three Collections : Translated with Notes {i^g^)\ 
J. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms; A New Translation (Haupt's " Sacred Books 
of the Old and New Testaments," 1898); S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter: 
Being the Prayerbook Version of the Psalms and a New Version .... with an 
Introduction and Glossaries (1898); J. Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the 
Psalms (1898); T. K. Cheyne, The Christian Use of the Psalms (1899); Idem, 
"Studies in the Criticism of the Psalms," Expositor, 1899, pp. 252-63, 334-44; G. A. 
Barton, "The Bearing of the Composition of the Psalter on the Date of the 44th Psalm," 
American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 740-46; Emilie G. Briggs, 
"nbO>" American fournal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1899), 
pp. 1-29 ; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899), 
pp. 355-426; T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the 
Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions ("Bampton Lectures" 
for 1899); A. S. Carrier, "Notes on the Psalms" American Journal of Semitic 
Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1900), pp. 54-59; Wright, The Psalms of 
David and the Higher Criticism (1900); W. S. Pratt, "A Comparative Study of 
Ps. i\,<i,'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 189-218; D. Smith, 
"Songs of the Ascents," Expository Times, Vol. XII (1901), pp. 62-65, 161-64,414- 
16; Vol. XIII, pp. 118-20, 500-503; Vol. XV, pp. 39-42; W. T. Davison, art. 
"Psalms," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV (1902) ; Budde, art. "Hebrew 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 25 I 

Poetry," ibid., Vol. IV (1902); W. R. Smith and T. K. Cheyne, art. "Psalms," 
Encydopcedia Biblica,Yo\.lll (1902); Duhm, art. "Poetical Literature," ibid., Vol. 
Ill {1902); E. G.HiRSCH, "Note on Psalms 34 and 25," American Journal of Semitic 
Languages and Literatures, XVIII (1902), pp. 167-73; W.W.Martin, "A Psalmist's 
Epithalamion," ibid., Vol. XIX (1902), pp. 49-51; P. Haupt, "The Poetic Form of 
the First Psalm," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 129-42; C. Martin, "The Impreca- 
tions in the Psalms," Princeton Theological Review, Vol. I (1903), pp. 535-53; 
J. W. Thirtle, The Titles of the Psalms: Their Nature and Meaning Explained 
(1904); T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms, Translated from a Revised Text with 
Notes and Introduction (1904); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Psalmists: 
The Psalms of the Old Testament Arranged in Their Natural Grouping and Freely 
Rendered in Paraphrase (1904). 

J. G. VON Herder, Vom Geist der ebrdischen Poesie (1782-83); Hitzig, Die 
Psalmen (1835, 2d ed., 1863-65); J. Olshausen, Die Psalmen erkldrt (" Kurzge- 
fasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1853); T. Noldeke, Die 
alttestamentliche Literatur (1868), pp. 117-42; C'E'iiKT,AbfassungszeitundAbschluss 
des Psalters zur Priifung der Frage nach Makkabderpsalmen historisch-kritisch 
untersucht (1869); E. Reuss, Le Psautier, ou le livre de cantiques de la synagogue 
(1879); Lagarde, Orz>«/a/za, Vol. II (1880), pp. 13-27; M. Kopfstein, />?<? ^ja/)/4- 
Psalmen untersucht (iSSi); F. Giesebrecht, "Uber die Abfassungszeit des Psalters," 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 276-332; H^ 
Graetz, Kritischer Commentar zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung 
(1882); F. Baethgen, "Der textkritische Wert der alten Uebersetzungen zu den 
V^zXm&n,'' Jahrbiicher der prot. Theologie, Vol. VIII (1882), pp. 405-59, 593-667; 
Bleek-Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 443-75; 
HuPFELD-NowACK, Die Psalmen icbersetzt und ausgelegt (1888); R. Smend, 
**Ueber das Ich der Psalmen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft^ 
Vol. VIII (1888), pp. 49-147; Kessler, Die asaphitische Psalmengruppe unter- 
sucht (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 171- 
205; W. Campe, Z?izj Verhdltniss Jeremias zu den Psalmen {i^gi) ; J. MiJHLMANN, 
Zur Frage nach den makkabdischen Psalmen (1891); C. H. Cornill, Einleitung 
in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 205-20: E. Sellin, Disputatio de origine carmi- 
num quae primus psalterii liber continet (1892); F. Baethgen, Die Psalmen Uber- 
setzt und erkldrt (" Handkommentar z. Alten Testament," 1892, 2d ed. 1897); W, 
Staerk, " Zur Kritik der Psalmeniiberschriften," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche 
Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 91-151; A. Rahlfs, "^27 and 12^ in den Psalmen 
(1892); J. B ACKM AN^, Praeparation und Kommentar zu den Psalmen, mit genauen 
Analysen und getreuer Uebersetzung fiir Gymnasiasten, Siudirende und Candidaten 
(1892) ; B. Stade, " Die messianische Hoffnung im Psalter," Zeitschrift fiir Theologie 
und ICirche,Y o\.ll (1892), pp. 369-413 (reprinted in Akademische Reden und Abhand- 
lungen [1899], pp. 37-76); Kuenen-Matthes, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in 
die Biicher des Alten Testaments, Vol. Ill (1893, German transl. 1894), pp. 1-57; 
E. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 393-406; Wildeboer, 
Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1894), pp. 388-403; W. Diehl, Erkldrung 
von Ps. 47 (1894); G. 'Q'ETLK, Individzial- und Gemeinde- Psalmen (1894); B. Jacob, 
"Eeitrage zu einer Einleitung in die Psalmen," Zeitschrift f d. alttest. Wissenschaft, 
Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 129-81, 265-91; Vol. XVII, pp. 48-80, 263-79; Vol. XVIII, pp. 
99-120; Vol. XX, pp. 49-80; J. K. Zenner, Die Chorgesdnge im Buche der Psalmen 



252 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(1896) ; F. COBLENZ, Ueber das betende Ich in den Psalmen (1897) ; W.Staerk, "Die 
Gottlosen in den Psalmen," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1897, pp. 449-88; C. H. 
CoRNiLL, Die Psalmen in der Weltlitteratur (1898); D. Leimdorfer, Das Psalter- 
Ego in den Ich-Psalmen: Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen Psalmenforschung (1898); 
BtJCHLER, "Zur Geschichte der Tempelmusik und der Tempelpsalmen," Z?zVj^/^r(/? 
/. d. alttest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 96 £f.; W. Riedel, "Zur Redaktion 
des Psalters," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 169-72; A. Merx, Ps, IX und X und 
andres MaccabaeiscAe (iSgg) ; H. Kessler, Die Psalmen ("Kurzgefasster Kommen- 
tar zu den heiligen Schriften," 1899); J. Wellhausen, "Bemerkungen zu den 
Psalmen," Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. VI (1899), pp. 163-87; B. DuHM, Die 
Psalmen erkldrt (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, 1899); Idem, 
Die Psalmen Ubersetzt (1899); J. Koberle, Die Tempelsdnger im Alten Testament 
(1899); RoTHSTEiN, "Ps. 78, ein Zeuge fiir d. Jahwistische Gestalt der Exodus- 
Tradition," Zeitschrift fUr wissenschaftliche Theologie, 1900, No. 4; Grimme, "Was 
bedeutet nlb^'Eri "TiTp?" Orientalistische Literatur-Zeiiung, Vol. IV (1901), pp. 
180-82; Couard, "Behandlung und Losung des Problems der Theodicee in den 
Ps. 37, 39 und 73," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. XL VII (1901), pp. 
110-24; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 
635-72 ; E. Kautzsch, Die Poesie und die poetischen Biicher des Alten Testaments 
(1902); Matthes, "Die Psalmen und d. Tempeldienst," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta- 
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 65-82; Grimme, Psalmenprobleme : 
Untersuchungen iiber Metrik, Strophik und Paseq des Psalmenbuches (1902). 

§ 279. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Is the Psalter rightly classified as 2, priestly product? Consider 
the significance of the fact that it contains a large amount of prophetic 
'and wisdom material as well as priestly. Can it be said to belong to 
any one of these three classes of Old Testament literature, or does it 
belong, rather, to all of them ? Might it not properly be a class by 
itself, viz., devotional literature? 

2. Consider the various possible methods of classifying the Psalms; 
e. g., as to {a) their subject-matter (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 368 f.), 
{b) their spirit and tone, (<:) the time of their origin. 

3. Of what value is the Psalter as a source of information con- 
cerning Israel's history ? What knowledge of Israel's past history does 
it reveal? What can be legitimately inferred from a study of the 
individual psalms as to the historical conditions amid which they were 
composed ? What light does the fact of the existence and use of the 
Psalter throw upon the life and spirit of the post-exilic Jews? 

4. In a study of the origin of the Psalter what is the significance of 
{a) the presence within it of such groups as the Korahite psalms, the 
Asaphite psalms, the Pilgrim psalms ; i^b) the groups of Yahwistic and 
Elohistic psalms ; {c) the division into five books ; (^) the grouping of 
the " Davidic " psalms ? On the basis of these and other similar 



THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 253 

phenomena, can any history of the growth of the Psalter through the 
grouping of various earlier collections be satisfactorily traced ? 

5. Take up the so-called "Imprecatory Psalms" and study them 
in the light of the following considerations : (a) the times to which 
they belong, when moral and spiritual conceptions were still in a more 
or less primitive stage and the spirit of the gospel was not yet shed 
abroad ; (3) the great provocation which called forth these utterances, 
the feeling of injury, oppression, and insult revealed in them ; (c) the 
tendency of human nature to seek revenge ; (d) the deep sense of 
justice out of which they spring, the feeling that such sins must not 
and cannot go unpunished, that the vindication of Jehovah's character 
demands the infliction of drastic penalties upon the notoriously wicked ; 
(<f) the necessity that this infliction of punishment should take place 
here and now, since the thought of a future life and a future judgment 
had not yet developed ; (/) the doctrine that prosperity was a sign of 
the divine favor, while misfortune and suffering was manifest evidence 
of and chastisement for sin. 

6. Make a comparison of the Psalms of Solomon with the Old 
Testament Psalter, and note the points of similarity and difference in 
the two collections. 

On the Psalms of Solomon see especially R. H.Charles, art. "Apocalyptic 
Literature," §77-85, EncyclopiBdia Biblica; Ryle and James, The Psalms of the 
Pharisees (1901); W. Frankenberg, Die Datierung der Psalmen Salomos: ein Bei- 
trag zur jiidischen Geschichte ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche 
Wissenschaft," 1896). 

7. Compare the old Babylonian penitential psalms with corre- 
sponding psalms of the Old Testament, with reference to such matters 
as (a) their idea of God, {b^ their conception of sin, {c) their longing 
for forgiveness, (^) their idea of atonement. 

On the Babylonian psalms see especially: H. Zimmern, Babylonische Buss- 
psalmen, umschrieben, iibersetzt und erkldri {i?>2>$) ; R. Brunnow, "Assyrian Hymns," 
Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV, pp. 1-40, 225-58; VoL V, pp. 55-80; T. G. 
Pinches, " An Erechite's Lament," Records of the Past (New Series), Vol. I, pp. 84 f.; 
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature (1901), pp. 429-44; J. Bahr, 
Die babylonischen Busspsalmen und das Alte Testament (1903); W. Caspari, "Die 
Religion in den assyrisch-babylonischen Busspsalmen," Beitrdge zur Forderung 
Christlicher Theologie, Vol. VII, No. 4 (1903). 



Paet Seventh 



THE PERMANE:NrT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY 
ELEMENT 

XIX. The Essential Significance of the Priestly Element. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 

§ 280. The Priestly Element Had Serious Limitations. 

— The agencies, through which the Spirit of God worked 
upon Israel during long centuries of guidance were 
human, and therefore imperfect. The prophet, with all 
his enthusiasm and enlarged vision, suffered serious limita- 
tions. The sage, in spite of his careful, methodical and, 
at times, scientific observation and study, fell far short of 
reaching even his own ideals. In what way were the 
priests limited? Consider the following: 

1. There were granted to the priests, as such, no 
great and uplifting visions of the nation's future glory. 

In later days, to be sure, priests like Ezekiel and Ezek. i :i-3 : 15; 
Zechariah were given such inspiration ; but they and 
others like them were no longer simply priests : they 
were prophets. The lack of the presence of the Spirit 
in their souls placed the ordinary priests in a class 
essentially different from that of the prophets. 

2. The priest was by the very nature of his profession 
a literalist, and consequently he was forever denied the 
strength and freshness which those may have who rise 
higher than the letter and see what is above and beyond it. 
This fact will account for much that is distinctly disap- 
pointing in the priestly element. 

3. Since the priestly element represented worship, 
and for that reason {a) came out of an early paganism, 
and (p) was constantly being drawn backward into that 
same paganism, or into other forms of heathen thought 
with which the sacrificial system was always in more or 
less close contact, it was forced to carry a heavy burden 
made up of corrupt and injurious notions and prac- 
tices, which even long culture would not and could 
not shake off. From all this prophetism was practically 
free. 

257 



chaps. 40-48 ; 
Zech. 1:7-6:8. 



Cf. Exod., chaps. 
35-40; Lev., 
chaps. 1-3, 7, 
14; Numb., 
chaps. 3, 4. 



I Kings 3:3; 12: 
25-33 ; 16 : 31 ff. ; 
2 Kings 16: II- 
16 ; 21 : 3-7 ; 
Ezek. 8:7-13; 
Jer. 44 : 17-19. 



258 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Bxod. 32:1-6,22- 4. All the ignorance and superstition of the masses 

1-3, la'^M; Hos.' were borne by the priestly class, rather than by the 

isa.'28:7f! ' ' prophets. The priest, if he remained a priest, was 

compelled to live and work with the masses in the midst 

of all that was degrading. 

Lev. 8: 1-9: 24; 5- The priest had to do chiefly with the outer form 

of truth, the symbol ; and while this was supposed to 

zech. 7:4, 5; isa. represent the inner and essential thought, it not infre- 
quently failed to maintain any real connection with that 
thought. 

Zech. 6:11; Lev. 6. The priest was intensely ambitious of power and 

2 kings 11:4-20. wealth, and the fact that, in time, the order gained 
control of state and church is evidence of success which 
in itself was detrimental to true and sincere effort. 

Kumb., chap. 19; 7. The teachings of the priest were more subjective 

■^^* and less direct than those of the prophet, in that the 

teaching of the latter was given to the people directly 

through the spoken or written word, while much of the 

priest's teaching was dependent upon the worshiper's 

own interpretation of the symbol employed in the ritual. 

2 Kings 22 : 3-23 : A Strong Spirit of conservatism was always in control; 
25;Neh. 8:1- ^ ^ , ^ , , 1 . r 

10:39; Mai. 1: progress was secured most frequently by revolution from 

6-2 ; 9. 

the outside, in which the prophets took leading part. 
Under the circumstances the priestly teaching was always 
slow to penetrate the nation's heart. 

§281. The Characteristics of the Priestly System, 
regarded as a whole, may be briefly studied : 

1. Its spirit not peculiar. — What is to be said of the 
spirit of this system when compared with that of other 
priestly systems? Wherein, if at all, is a distinction to 

Lev. 17:6; 20:26; be found? Is not the spirit, in this case, just what the 
II f.* ' true spirit of worship always proves to be, viz., the 

simplest and most common effort to come into close 
touch with the higher powers ? 

2. Its form not peculiar. — But what may be said of the 
outer form of this priestly system ? Does it not have 

c/. §§72:4, 6; 95: much in common likewise with other systems ? What is 

vi\\Z^<i\ xzy.n. peculiar to it so far as form is concerned? Altar? 

temple? sacrifice? feast? music and prayer ? priest and 

holy order? Are not the Urim and Thummim of 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 259 

foreign origin ? How about sacrifices of salt and meal ? 
the clean and unclean ? Can you find among the 
institutions of the Israelitish priestly system one which 
does not have an analogue in other religions ? 

3. Its relation to other priestly jyj/<?;«j. — Consider, 
now, whether or not it is true that in its priestly system 
the Hebrew religion touches other ancient religions 
most closely. Have other religions prophetism and 
prophecy ? Or is it not rather soothsaying and divina- 
tion ? Is the Hebrew priestly system as different from 
other priestly systems as Hebrew prophecy is different 
from other systems of prophecy ? 

4. The system and the people. — Is it true that at first Amos2:6ff., 

II ff.; 3: 14; 4: 

the people were more in sympathy with their priestly 4^.; 5:4^., 21- 
system than with the prophetic ideas which were pro- hos. 2:11; 3:4; 
posed in opposition ? Did the nation ever struggle 
against the priest as it struggled against the prophet ? 
Does this mean that the priestly conception and expres- 
sion were something less alien to the hearts of the 
people ? 

5. The period of its dominance. — To what extent were ^^^'JV'i^-'\'^°' 
priest and prophet in conflict with each other? And 1°^; Hos. 6:4- 

^ r x- 10; 5:1; Isa. 1: 

why? Is it the priest whom the prophet always holds ij^^'g?!^' 

responsible for the people's sins ? Which of the two 

orders represented the old ? which the new ? Which 

represented form ? which spirit ? Which held back ? 

which pushed forward ? How important in the history 

of the nation was this struggle between prophet and 

priest ? which conquered ? when ? why ? 

6. Its chronological relation to prophecy. — V^\iQT\ in the Jer. i .- 1 ; Ezek. 
history of the priestly system was its progress most chaps. 40-48; 
pronounced? How explain the fact that in the later ^°S'iJ^\'^^.' %. 
periods of prophecy the prophets were all priests ? But 2:1-9. 

what became of the great teachings of the prophets 

when prophetism as a movement had died out and the 

priestly order was in power ? Was this teaching^ lost ? Deut., chaps. 6- 
^ -^ ^ ° 11; Lev. 23:22; 

or was it appropriated by the priests and incorporated 25:39^:26:14- 

into their system ? Of what importance was the legacy 

left by prophecy at its death ? Are priest and prophet 

now one, the priest being the spokesman ? But why did 



260 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

prophecy die ? And how did it happen that the priest, 
who had always opposed the prophet and his work, took 
up that work when there were no longer prophets to 
conduct it ? 

Exod. 20:24; 7. Its variations and contradictions. — Does not this 

Deut. 18:1-8; ' priestly element seem to be full of contradictions? But 

Lev. 2i : 10-15.' what is the nature of these contradictions ? Is it that of 

change from time to time ? Is it the result of adjust- 

c/. §§76;8o; ment to great changes in national life? What, for 
example, led to the change from the system in which 
worship was distributed throughout the nation to that 
of centralization at one place? Why was worship in 
Babylon during the exile impossible ? Explain the 
recentralization later in the second temple; and still 
later its redistribution in the synagogues. All this 
points to what characteristics besides those of flexibility 
and capability of adjustment ? 

c/. §§ 60, 62, 66, 8. Its autocratic and democratic character.— Con- 

sider the change in character that has taken place 
between the early days when every man might be his 
own priest, and the last days which witnessed the firm 
establishment of the hierarchy. How is this to be 
accounted for? 

Cf. chaps, ii, iii, 9. Its purity, impurity, and artificiality. — Compare 

97' ^04. ^'^' this priestly system {a) when it was mingled with all the 
impurities of Canaanitish worship, and {b) when it has 
been purged and purified of its dross by the fire of 
captivity; and still again {c) when it has become 
one of the most artificial rituals ever accepted by a 
nation. What is to be said of these different stages ? 

10. Its narrowness and breadth. — Compare, again, the 
character of this system in its later days when, from one 
point of view, it was most narrow and artificial; while, 
from another, it was most broad and spiritual ; since, at 

Lev., chaps. 4. 5, a time when animals were being slain by tens of 

21; Numb., ' thousands, and the body was being worn out with 

worship and purifications, then, and not till then, did 

c/. §§270-77. this religious system give birth to the Psalter, which 

contains the greatest examples of higher spiritual con- 
templation and communion with God that religion has 
ever produced. 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26l 

§ 282. The Purpose or Function of the Priestly System. 
— Which of these words is to be employed, "purpose" 
or *' function " ? What is the point of view involved in 
each ? 

1. Its purpose or function in general. — What may be 

said as to the purpose or function of the priestly system cf.%\. 
in any religion ? What other elements, aside from the 
priestly element, are required to make up religion, or to 
constitute the religious spirit ? What is the relation 
sustained by the priestly element to the others ? 

2. Its purpose or function for the individual. — {a) Was 
there a meaning in the various acts of worship for each 

and every person who participated in the worship ? Did c/. §§84:2; 87:2; 
oil and salt, blood and fat, meal and incense, represent 
ideas ? What, in the case of each of these ? Did these 
ideas, thus symbolically represented, come from men's 
hearts and express various phases of their feelings ? {b^ 
In what sense was the temple a laboratory in which men 
were required to go through a certain process, doing the 
detail of the work, every detail representing an experi- 
ence of one or another kind in the religious life? 
Would the doing of these things impress upon the doer 
the meaning which they were supposed to represent ? 
What was the answer to the oft-recurring questions ; 
" Why do I wash ? Why do I touch no unclean thing ? 
Why do I observe the sabbath?" Was it not in each 
case a great truth ? Was the act, therefore, a lesson 
repeated every time the act was performed ? But would 
many, perhaps the great majority, perform the act 
without asking the question, and so without being 
conscious of any lesson involved in it ? Is it just so in 
acts of worship today ? Does this fact, in itself, affect 
essentially the point in question ? 

3. Its purpose or function for the nation. — {a) Did the 

national idea precede or follow that of the individual? Am. 2:6; 5:i£f.; 

__., j-ji r f, .1..-., Exod. 20 : 2 ff. ; 

When did the first conception of the individual as jer. 31:291.; 

Ezek., chkp. 18. 
distinguished from the nation begin to appear ? Did 

the idea of individualism have large development in Old 

Testament times ? or even in the first centuries of 

Christianity? Was the priestly system, on the whole, 



262 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMEFT 

better adapted to individual or national life ? {b) What, 
so far as concerns relationship to the deity, would be the 
result for the nation, of a regular and sincere adoption 
of the ceremonial ? How different would the effect of 
observing the ritual be from that of attending church in 
more modern times? Would it, in some sense, bring 
them into touch with God, and under His influence? 
Was it, after all, a very natural expression of man's 
relation to God ? {c) Are we to suppose that sacrifice 
(which may here be taken as representing the priestly 
system) from the beginning was something established 
by God himself and suggested by him directly to man ? 
Lev., chaps. 1-7. Is this not the way in which the Priest Code everywhere 
c/. §216, (4). regards sacrifice? In other words, as something given 
by God to man through Moses ? Does the Priest Code 
recognize the existence of a priestly system before 
Moses's day ? or among other nations ? How, then, is 
this presentation of the subject to be understood? {d) 
But - in what way are we to account for the universal 
prevalence of sacrifice among the nations? What is to 
be said for and against the hypothesis of a primitive 
revelation to which all this points back? Is it easier to 
understand this common form of worship, viz., sacrifice, 
as a natural expression, on the part of man, of the 
relation which he believes himself to sustain to the 
higher powers ? In this case what was the nature of the 
feeling which originally prompted the action, and 
controlled the devotee in the process of the action ? 
Lev., chap. 16; 4: (^) Was it his sense of God's holiness and his own sin ? 
feif^-Numb. his feeling that he deserved death ? Did he therefore 
15^22-31; 19: present animals in sacrifice as his own substitute ? What 
is meant in this connection by the use of the words 
"piacular," "propitiation ?" But can we suppose that 
the men of primitive times, savages, had reached so 
advanced a point of philosophical reflection ? May we 
perhaps suppose that this act, which constitutes so large 
an element in all priestly systems, had its origin and 
abiding function in a desire to acknowledge dependence 
upon the higher power and to render to it homage? 
Would it be far removed from this to say that the chief 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 263 

purpose of the worshiper, whether nation or individual, Lev. 4:20, 26, 31, 

35; 5: S^M 13) 

was to erain the favor of the god, or to avert his i8f.;Numb. 

*9- 13- 

displeasure? (/) What is involved in that other expla- Gen. 18:1-8; 31: 

54 5 Exod» 18 • 

nation which finds the essence of sacrifice in the meal 12; Numb. 22: 

40 ; Deut. 27 : 

which followed, a communion of man and God in food ? 6^, 7; i sam.' 

1 :3ff. ; 9: i2f.; 

Did not eating together constitute a covenant or bond 16:2,5:20:29; 

Ezek. 39 : 17-20 

of friendship? God and the tribe being one, would not Lev. 8:15, 24; 

9: 18; 17' 6 

this union be strengthened, or, if temporarily strained. Lev. 1:3-9. 

be restored by eating food in common ? And did not 

the god receive his share in the blood poured upon the 

altar? In this case how explain the whole burnt 

offering, all of which was given to the god ? How 

much change in this conception of sacrifice was involved 

in the advance from nomadic life, when all property was 

held in common by the tribe, to the agricultural life, 

when men began to hold personal property ? (g) In 

any case, is it not true that in Old Testament times the 

idea most in vogue is that the priestly system, with the 

act of sacrifice as its central feature, represented the 

means by which a man might make 2, srift to God ? Is it Numb., chap. 28 ; 

anywhere suggested that the giving of gifts to God is 

something displeasing to him ? Is there great difference Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Amos 

of opinion, on the other hand, as to the particular thing 6:6. 

which shall be given ? 

4. Its function in connection with the messianic idea. — 

\a) In what sense is the word "messianic" to be taken ? 

What are some of the more important elements of which 

it is constituted? In how far may the word "eschato- 

logical " be used as a synonym ? Who are indicated as 

the conspicuous representatives of this movement or 

element, (i) during the existence of the kingdom; (2) isa.9:6f. 

during the Babylonian exile? (3) When Jerusalem is isa. 49:1-6; 52: 

rebuilt and the second temple is erected — that is, at the 

time of the restoration — what official fissure comes into Hag. 1:1, 12. 14; 

° 2 : 2, 4 ; Zech., 

especial prommence? At the same time what feeling chap. 3. 

becomes uppermost in the minds of the people? As a Lev., chap. 16; 

^ ^ 10: i6ff. ; 

consequence of this overwhelming sense of sin, what Numb. 19:1-9. 

new importance attaches to the idea of atonement? {c) 

Were the people of the restoration disappointed in Hag. 2 : 6-9, 20- 

, 23; Zech. 6: 15; 

their failure to see the fulfilment of the prophetic chap. 8. 



264 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

promises concerning the re-establishment of the king- 
dom and the coming of the Messiah ? How did they, 

Mai. 1:1-14; 2: after awhile, account for the refusal or failure of God to 

c/.§§*38, 15; 92, fulfil these promises? Regarding themselves as respon- 
sible, what steps were taken to force God to bring these 

Mai. 3:1-6. things to pass ? How did this affect the priestly system ? 

In what way, also, the further development of the 
messianic idea ? 

5. Its function in relation to the introduction of Greek 
thought. — What, in general, was the effect upon the 
eastern world of the fall of the Persian empire and the 
supremacy of the Greeks, attained through Alexander 
the Great ? How was Greek influence exerted upon 
these eastern nationalities ? To what extent was the 

c/. §51. Jewish nation affected by Greece? What were the 

essential contributions received by Judaism from Greece? 
To what extent did Judaism successfully resist the 
movement which exerted so strong an influence upon all 
other nations with which it came in contact? What 
enabled Judaism to withstand this influence ? What 
were the elements in the priestly system that enabled it 
to render this very striking service ? 

c/. §197, 3. § 283. The Essential Thought of the Priestly Element 

may be grouped around three or four subjects. These 
are, God, Man, Sin, and the Church. 

I. God. — («) Does not the priestly thought of God, 
after all, represent the whole Old Testament, except the 
portions known as Wisdom ? 

{h) How, and in what sense, does the priestly element 
include the prophetic ? 

{c) Can a distinction be made between the priestly 
and the prophetic conceptions of God in the periods that 
precede the captivity in Babylon ? in the periods that 
follow the captivity ? 

{d) What stages of growth may be discovered in the 

c/. §§ 18, 38, 49. priestly conception of God before its incorporation of 
the prophetic ? likewise, after the incorporation ? Was 
the later conception more strongly priestly or prophetic ? 
{e) What distinct conceptions, if any, are to be found 
in the Wisdom element ? Are they older than the 
priestly, or later ? higher or lower ? 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 265 

(/) Are holiness and majesty perhaps the two pre- 
dominant conceptions of God in the priestly element? 
What others might be mentioned as almost equally- 
prominent ? Was either of these attributes a part of the 
primitive Semitic conception of God? At what time in 
Greece's history did they begin to be recognized ? How Lev., chaps. 8,9, 
is the holiness of God symbolically represented in the Exod.24:i5^-i8a; 

34 ; 29—35, 

Levitical ritual ? How is the majesty of God indicated, 

especially in the Priest Code? Upon what aspects of Pss. 23, 90, 91, 

deity do the Psalms dwell most earnestly ? 

2. Ma7i. — {a) In what way is the priestly element 
especially concerned with man? (i) as an individual? c/. §283, 2, 3. 
or (2) as representing the human race? or (3) as he 
appears, earlier, in the Israelitish nation and later, in the 
Judaistic church ? What is the position of the individual, 

in contrast with that of the nation, as represented in the 
Levitical ritual? in the Psalter? 

{h) Is it through Israel alone that God will meet the Exod. 19:6; 
world? What will be Israel's relation to the world at 32:8f.* '^^' 
large? Does the materialistic conception continue to 
the end in spite of the prophetic teaching? 

(c) Is i\iG. sinfulness of man's nature more definitely Lev.4:35; 9:3; 
and frequently expressed than any other quality? What le-Wmb.ig:* 

I— Q* Pss *\I ' 

is the form of expression most common in the ritual? in gor's; 41:4;' 
the Psalter? 38:3;3.:.-5. 

3. Sin. — (a) Have there been different stashes in the Josh., chap. 7; 

Deut. 7:25; 
growth of the priestly idea of sin? What, for example, 8:19; 9:5*.; 

,. •, J . , . , , ' J , 11: 16; 25: 13-16. 

was the prevailing idea in the patriarchal time under the Lev. 4: if., 13, 

primitive Semitic worship? What, later, when the chap.'ie;"' 

r ' ' Numb. 15 : 22 ff . 

prophets have given their message? What, still later, 
when the fulness of the monotheistic conception has 
come to be realized ? 

{b) Is it true that the idea of sin is always and every- 
where simply a corollary of the idea of God? What c/. §92, n. 
connection may be traced in the development of the 
priestly system between these two ideas ? How shall 
we explain the growth, among the Hebrews, of the inten- 
sity of feeling concerning sin? 

(c) Is it true that the different Hebrew words ior sin Lev. 4:3; 16:16; 

- r 1 • -1 1 20 : 20 ; Numb. 

express various phases of the idea as they were recog- 15:28; Deut. 

17:2. 



266 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Amos 5:7, loff., 
15; H0S.2: 13; 
4:6; 6:6ff.; 
Lev. 18 : 1-5 ; 
15:31; 6:1 ff.: 



Pss. 51; 36:1-4; 
39:1; 53:1. 



Lev., chap. 16; 

5:5! 
Numb. 19 : i-io. 



Exod. 12:3; 16:1; 
Lev. 4 : 13 ; 
Numb. 35 : 24 ; 
Ps. 74:8. 



Pss. 2:6; 9:11; 

48:12; 51:18; 

53:6; 126:1; 

Isa. 1 : 8 ; 14 : 32 ; 

28: 16; Jer. 26: 

18; 50:5. 
Amos 1 : 2. 
Lev. 24 : 8 ; 26 : 42. 



Gen. 1 : 27-30 ; 9 : 
8-17; 17:1-14; 
Exod. 31 : 16 f . 



Ezra 9:1-4; chap. 
10 ;Neh., chaps. 
9, 10 ; Lev. 4 : 
13 ff.; chap. 25. 



Isa. 8 : 16-18. 



Isa. 7:3; 10 : 20- 

22. 
Jer. 31 : 29 f . 



Ezek., chaps. 18, 
33, 40-48. 



nized by the Hebrews ? What are the more important 
of these words (in English), and what is the distinctive 
meaning of each ? What, as a matter of fact, is the 
meaning of the word {hattatH), commonly translated sin? 

id) Can a distinction be made between the priestly 
and the prophetic conceptions of sin? Does Wisdom 
furnish any varying ideas ? Wherein consists the difference 
between the priestly conception of sin, as expressed in 
the Psalter and the ritual, and that which is found in the 
Assyrian penitential psalms and corresponding ritual ? 

{e) How may forgiveness of sin be secured ? What 
is the essential idea in the teaching concerning atone- 
ment as it appears in connection with the ritual ? 

4. The Church. — {a) Does this word really belong 
to Old Testament thought of any school ? What is the 
usage of the terms "congregation" and "synagogue"? 
Is " Zion " a priestly or a prophetic word ? What general 
significance does it have aside from its literal meaning ? 
What is the distinctive meaning of two other common 
phrases, "the Covenant people," and "the theocracy"? 

{b) Was it with the inner or outer sense of the terms 
cited above that the priestly element had most to do ? 
Was there a time after which the inner sense received 
greater consideration ? 

{c) Did the great priestly narrative [P] lay stress upon 
certain covenants, viz., with Adam, Noah, Abraham, and 
Moses ? What bearing did these covenants have upon 
the later conception of the church ? 

{d) Was Judaism a kingdom or a church ? Was the 
ruling power a monarchy or a hierarchy ? Did the 
priestly element, therefore, really become a church sys- 
tem ? and were the institutions of worship precursors in 
thought as well as in form of the idea of the church ? 

(e) Was the company made up of Isaiah and his dis- 
ciples the first step away from the national community 
to the church community? Did Isaiah's teaching of the 
remnant prepare the way for Jeremiah's teaching of indi- 
vidualism, and the two together thus furnish the basis 
for the church idea? Did Ezekiel continue to develop 
this thought in the direction of a church community 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26/ 

made up of those who were circumcized of heart ? Were Jer. i : i ; Ezek. 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel priests as well as prophets ? 

(/) In what way did the period of the exile during 
which worship in the usual sense was impossible contri- 
bute to the development of the church community ? 

Did this period also make more prominent the observance Cf. §§ii8 and 

137, 3 
of the sabbath and the service of prayer? Did Ezekiel Ezek. 8:1; 14:1; 

20 : 1 . 

gather together the people for exhortation ? What indi- 
cations are found, in Ezra's times and later, of the srrowiner Ezra 10: iff.; 

° " Neh. 9:iff. 

habit of assembling for prayer and for the reading and 

interpretation of Scripture ? 

{g) If we may understand that back and under all 
institutions thought is to be found, and if we measure the 
importance of the thought by the number of the institu- 
tutions involved, as also by the acknowledged character 
of the institutions, is it not true that the church, with all 
that it represented before the times of the Christian 
church, was one of the most essential subjects of thought 
in the priestly element ? 

§ 284. Many of the Ideals of Modern Church Life and Worship are 
the direct contribution of the priestly element found in the Old Testa- 
ment. The word "inheritance" is perhaps a better word in this con- 
nection than "contribution." Some of these ideals are institutions; 
and some, aspirations of the most holy character. Consider and 
formulate in some detail the following propositions : 

1. That the Christian church goes back directly to the synagogue 
community. 

See : J. A. Selbie, art. "Congregation," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; S. C. 
Gayford, art. "Church," ibid.; Backer, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; J. A. Robinson, art. 
"Church," Encydopcedia Biblica; I.J. Peritz, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; Schurer, 
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Division II, Vol. II, pp. 52-89, 
243-52; Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Neuetestamentlichen Canons, Vol. II 
(1883), p. 165; Idem, Einleitung in das Neue Testa?iient, Vol. I, pp. 66 f. ; Hatch, 
The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. 

2. That the Christian service of song, prayer, and exhortation goes 
back to the Jewish temple ritual and the exercises of the synagogue. 

See: chap, xviii; Weiszacker, The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church, Vol. 
II, pp. 246, 254, 258. 

3. That the beginning of the modern Bible in form and idea dates 
from the priestly reform of Josiah's times when Deuteronomy was 
published. 



268 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See : Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 89 f. ; F. H. Woods, art. " Old Testament 
Canon," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Wii.deboer, The Origin of the Canon 
of the Old Testament, pp. 22-25. 

4. That the conception of the clergy as distinct from the laity goes 
back to the Levitical priesthood. 

See: §§62f.; and Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches, 
pp. 141 f. ; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 87 f. 

5. That the idea of the mission of the church to the world at large 
goes back to the commission of Israel to be a priest nation. 

See : Exod. 19: 6; Isa. 42: 1-7; 61:6; i Pet. 2:5, 9, and Holzinger, Exodus, p. 
67 ; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, pp. 457 f. ; G. A. Smith, 
The Book of Isaiah, Vol. II, pp. 237 ff. 

6. That the thought of bringing God into the world comes from 
the determination of the Jewish saints, under priestly influence, to live 
lives of such purity and holiness as to make God introduce the ruessi- 
anic times, of which there had been dreams, but as yet no realization. 

See : Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 80 f. ; Montefiore, The 
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 321 f. 

7. That the highest ideals of mankind touching the soul's contact 
with God have come from the experiences of Jewish saints expressed in 
song for purposes of Jewish worship (/. e., the Psalms). 

See : §§ 275-277 ; and Perowne, The Book of Psalms (8th ed.), Vol. I, pp. 25-40 ; 
KiRKPATRiCK, The Book of Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. Ixxviii £f. 

8. That the Lord's Supper is the continuation of the Jewish Paschal 
feast. 

See: Plummer, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. Ill, p. 145; J. A. 
Robinson, vci Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 141 9. 

9. That the Lord's day, Sunday, is the offspring of the Jewish sab- 
bath.. 

See: Hessey, Sunday, its Origin, History, and Present Obligation (Bampton 
Lecture, 5th. ed., 1889); H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath ("Golden Lectures" 
for 1900-1901); N. J. D. White, art. "Lord's Day," Hastings's Dictionary of the 
Bible; T^KYi.^, Geschichte des Sonntags vornehmlich in der alien Kirche; G. A. Deiss- 
MANN, art. " Lord's Day," Encyclopcedia Biblica. 

ID. That the Christian Easter celebration is the continuation of 
the spring feast which has come down to us through the Jewish Pass- 
over feast. 

See: Hitzig, Ostern und Pfngsten (1837-38); Duchesne, La question des 
origines du culte chretien (1889), pp. 226 ff.; Canon Venables, art. "Easter," 
Encyclopcedia Britannica. 

II. That Thanksgiving day is the modern representative of the 
Feast of Tabernacles. 



ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 269 

See: Deut. 16:13-15; and A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Benzinger, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," Ency- 
doptxdia Bib lie a, 

12. That the more widely accepted theories of the atonement 
(whether right or wrong) rest fundamentally upon the Old Testament 
doctrine of sacrifice. 

See : J. O. F. Murray, art. " Atonement," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; 
Dale, The Doctrine of the Atonement; Wilson, Hulsean Lectures on the Atonement 
(1899); SCHULTZ, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American 
Journal of Theology, Wo\. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; Archibald Scott, Sacrifice, its 
Prophecy and Fulfilment {^^Bz.\xd Lecture," 1892-93). 

13. That the New Covenant, a more accurate expression for the 
New Testament now commonly used, was first conceived and expressed 
in its fundamental principles by an Old Testament priest (who was 
also a prophet). 

See : Jer. 31: 31 £f.; and A. B. Davidson, art. "Covenant," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible; McClymont, art. "New Testament," ibid. 

14. That the Christian practice of fasting had its direct origin in 
the usage which grew up in later Judaism. 

See: §§152-154; and J. S. Black, art. "Fasting," Encyclopcedia Britannica; 
Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopcedia Biblica; C.J. Ball, art. "Fasting 
and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). 

15. That the Christian rite of baptism is historically (through John 
the Baptist) and logically (moral uncleanness taking -the place of cere- 
monial uncleanness), the successor to the Jewish rite of baptism, 
practised as a means of restoration from a state of ceremonial unclean- 
ness, and employed in the case of proselytes. 

See: Plummer, art. "Baptism," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; J. A. 
Robinson, art. "Baptism," Encyclopaedia Biblica; W. Elwin, art. "Baptism," 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). 

§ 285. Permanent Truth of a most precious kind was wrought out 
through this long laboratory process, along with much which, of 
course, was temporary and ephemeral. Consider and formulate, among 
other great and fundamental truths of an eternal character, those 
relating to — 

I. The Holiness of God, especially from the point of view of the 
Levitical system, in which it occupies a fundamental position. 

See: J. Skinner, art. "Holiness in the Old Testament," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible; Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. II, pp. 
3-142; Smend; Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.) pp. 325 f.; 
A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 144-60 ; Schultz, Old Testament 
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 166 ff. 



270 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

2. The filthiness of sin, especially as symbolized in certain details 
of the Levitical system, which undoubtedly were, however, only the 
tangible representation of previous prophetic thought. 

See : K5berle, Sunde und Gnade im religiosen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf 
Christum (1905), PP- 325-57. 4I5-57I; Bernard, art. "Sin," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 203-34; Tennant, The Origin 
and Propagation of Sin; Idem, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original 
Sin; Clemen, Die Christliche Lehre von der Siinde. 

3. The forgiveness of sin, as illustrated by the ceremonial of the 
priestly system. 

See: Koberle, op. cit., pp. 597-638; Bethune-Baker, art. "Forgiveness," 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- 
geschichte (2d ed. 1893), pp. 394-403; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, ^p^. 315 ff. 

4. Vicarious suffering, as involved in the doctrine of sacrifice. 

See: Baird, Sacrifice, its Prophecy and Fulfilment; Schultz, "The Significance 
of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), 
pp. 257-313; Driver, art. "Offer, Offering," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; 
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et P expiation (1891). 

5. The ecclesiastical state, as pictured by Ezekiel. 

See: Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and the commentaries on these chapters, especially 
those of Davidson {Cambridge Bible), Kraetzschmar {Hand-Kommentar zum 
Alien Testament), Bertholet {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), and 
Skinner {Expositor's Bible). 

§ 286. The Ethical Influence of the Priestly Element is one which 
can be felt more easily than it can be described, (i) Analyze this 
element and point out the various individual factors in it which, one 
may believe, would tend to an ethical uplifting of those who conscien- 
tiously followed the rules and regulations of the priestly ceremonial. 
(2) Consider, on the other hand, the factors which might be expected 
to prove injurious ethically. (3) Would some of these factors for 
good vary in their influence, producing one result in certain cases, and 
a different result in still other cases? (4) What, upon the whole, 
would be the general ethical influence of the system ? 

§ 287. Pre-natal Christianity and the Priestly Element. — Much of 
that which was later called Christianity really existed before the 
coming of Jesus. This is true of teachings and ideals which were 
distinctively prophetic, and of those which were characteristic of 
the sage, as well as of those which were peculiarly priestly in their 
origin and character. All these elements, as they existed together in 
Judaism, may figuratively be called pre-natal Christianity. Endeavor 
to reconstruct this embryonic Christianity, and decide what part or 
portion of the whole was this priestly element, as separated from the 
other elements of prophecy and wisdom. 



Appendixes 



A. The Vocabulary of Worship ; Lists of the More Important 
Words. 

B. Classified Lists of Important Books. 

C. New Literature on the Priestly Element. 



APPENDIX A. 



THE VOCABULARY OF WORSHIP. 



The following list, though not designed to be exhaustive, aims to 
include all the more important words relating to worship and to the great 
ideas that find expression in the ritual. The list of Greek equivalents 
contains the various renderings employed in the Septuagint with the 
exception of some of the rarer ones, and of those evidently based 
upon different readings from those now found in the Massoretic Text. 



"ly'^-Q bn« 


7} (TKrjVT] Tov /laprvpiov 


tent of meeting 


Dil'lK 


SiyXwcris, drjXoL 


Urim 


a-i-ann o'^n^i^ 


(f)a}TL<TU)v (Neh. 7:65) 


Urim and Thummim 


7\b^ 


dp<£, 6pKi.<rfi6s, SpKos, opKta- 
fwffla, Kardpa 


oath, curse 


D^n-bx 


debs^ Kijpios 


God 


?ppx 


iopTT] avvTeXeias 


ingathering, harvest 


-IDX 


opia-fios 

i<po^5, i(pu)5, iTTCjjfxls (or iiru}- 


binding oath, vow 




fiiSes, Exod. 28:8; 39:5), 




leparela (Hos. 3:4), aroX-n 


- ephod 


• '^':. 


(2 Sam. 6:14; I Chron. 






15:27) 




"^ss: 


<r7ro56s, ffirodla, KOirpia (Job 
2:8) 


ashes 


Iiii5 


/ct/3wr6s 


ark 


nfx 


dvcia^ dvaiaa-fm, KdpirufjLa^ 
Kdpwocns, oXoKa^Tio/xa 


an offering made by fire 


nm 


TrXTj/jL/xeXeip, afiaprdveiv, dy- 
vbnv 


offend, be guilty 


nm 


TrXrjfjifjJXeia, dyvoia, xXT]ixfi4- 


offense, trespass, guilt, 




Xtj/mx, irXrjfXfM^Xrjcris, dfxap- 


trespass offering 




Tia 




nm 


irXrjfjifxeXeTv, ev d/xapriais eJvai 
(Gen. 42:21) 


guilty 


n'am 


dyvoia, nfLapria, irXruxfieXeiv, 
TrXTfu/i^Xeia 


wrongdoing, guilt 


nnt?i< 


dXo-os, 'AffTdpTTj (2 Chron. 
15:16; 24:18) 


Asherah(A.V., "grove") 


1? 


/S(£5, ^va-ffivos, ayios (Ezek. 
10:6,7) 


white linen 



273 



274 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



n^isa 


TO, irpuToyevvT^/iiaTa, to. irpoj- 


first-fruits 




T by ova. 




n^a 


(Ezek. 20:29), p(afx6s, 
(TT'/iXri, e^os, ^ovvds, (Ps. 
78:58; I Kings 10:13), 
etdufXov {Ezek. i6:i6) 


high-place 


a^^l? 


i<rxvp6s, do-retos (Judg. 3:17), 
e/cXeKTos, TraxiJs (Ezek. 
34:3) 


fat 


n-^^a 


diad^Krj 


covenant 


n^ia 


evXoyia, eiXoyeiv, evXoyi^Tds 


blessing 



D^5) 


ijdvfffMa, dvfilaixa^ 6<r/jL7} ■^8€ta 


spice, balsam 


bm 


^etv 


boil, seethe 


bni. 


kXtjpos, KXripopofila, opiov, 
6vofm 


lot 


"13 


^ivos, irdpoiKos, yrjdpas, trpo- 
ariXvTos, ye'iTiov 


sojourner, stranger 


D'lb^^a 


€i5wXa, i-jnTTjde^fjLaTa, /35e- 
X^yfiara, diavoiqiiiaTa, iv- 
OvfiTjiiaTa 


idols 


-i^n'H 


dapeip, da^eip, da^ip, va6s 


shrine, innermost room in 
Solomon's temple 


D'l 


ai/xa 


blood 


m 


Tndrrjs, ra dyadd, <tto56s, 
a-JToSia, KaraKapiroxni 


fatness, fat ashes 


bD-in 


va6s, otKos 


temple 


nnr 


dveip, 0v<rid^€iv, crtpd^eiv, 


slaughter for sacrifice 



dv/JLiav, dvfiid^eiv, irpoff- 
(p^peiv (Deut. 17:1), c/ff)?- 
Teiv (2 Chron. 28:23) 

nnt dvixa, dvffia, dvaiafffia, dvfii- 
afJLa, <7ff)dyiou (Am. 5:25), 
oXoKa^/Too/xa (Exod. 10:25) 
3n eopTi^ 

35n ioprd^etu 

tOnn I^V'^1 v€Ofxi]pia, vovfjLTjviay eoprri 

nTn a-T7j66piov, 9jirap (Lev. 7:30) 

Xt3n diiapTdv€iv,i^afj.apTdv€iv,d5i- 

K€iv, ivvoetu KaKd, diafiaprd- 

v€iv, iKKXiveLV, i(pafxapTd- 

peiv, fiialveiv, i^dyeiv 

XtDn d<paypL^€iv, dyvi^eLv, i^iXd- 

(TKea-dai, Kadapi^eiv^ pavri- 



sacrifice 



feast, pilgrim-feast 
make a pilgrimage, cele- 
brate a feast 
new moon, month 
breast of animals 
to sin 



to atone, jnake expiation 
for 



APPENDIXES 



275 



T T -T 



nbn 



npn .pr: 



Din 



IT?" 



i^)3i: 



bni-' 



b^b3 



afxaprvXds, duo/ids, da^^rfs, 

d/xapTdvcop 
dfJiapTia, dvo/Jiia 
dfiaprLa, dfxdpTT]fxa, dvSfxrj/xa, 

da^jSeta, dvo/xia, d(r^/3r;/u.a, 

d8iKia, fjL€TaKivr](ris (Zech. 

13:1), KaKia (Jer. 15:13), 

KapSla (Ps. 32:5), fidraios 

(i Kings 16:2) 
iXa(ryLt6s, i^c\a<Xfx6s, dyvi,<r- 

fi6$, dypiff/iia 
ffT^ap, fiveXds (Gen. 45: 18), 

ya\d (Ps. 119:70; Ezek. 

34:3), dirapx-n (Numb. 

18:29, 30, 32), dvffla (I 

Kings 8:64), <rdpKas{Ezek. 

44:7) 

vdfios, TTpda-rayfia, SiKaicj/xa^ 
t6 vSfXLiJLOv, evToX'ri, Kpi/jLa, 
StacTToXi^, Tpoir-q^ crvvra^is, 
SSffis 

dvaTedsfiaTifffxivov^ dvddefxa, 
dvddrjfjLa, d(f)6pL(j-fxa, dirw- 
Xeto, diroWdeiv, crayrjpr}, 
€^o\6dp€v/xa ( I Kings 
15:21), oX^dpios (i Kings 
20:42) 

Myehv, \6yiov, irepia-r-^diov, 
iroSi^p'rjs 

pdirreiv, jjjoKOveiv 

Kaddpbv eivai, d/xe/xTTTOP eipai, 
Ka6api^€(x6ai, dypl^CLP, dcpa- 
ypl^eadai , 

dKddapTOP ehai, dKddaprop 
yipeadat, iKfjuaipeadai^ fjnai- 
veiv (to defile), ^e^rfKovv 
(to defile), dKadapaia, 
/jLiapcris 

dKadap<ria, dKddapros, dwo- 
Kadrjfx^pr], p.Lav<ns (Lev. 
13:44), fiiaipeip 

&(f)€<Ti.s, d<p^(T€U)S arj/jLaaia^ 
a-rnxacia, <rd\irty^, dtpai- 
pea-is (Numb. 36:4) 

^irap 

lepers 

oXoKa^TCj/xa, 6\6KavTos 

XOifxaplfx (2 Kings 23:5), 
oi iepeli (Zeph. 1:4) 



sinful, sinner 



sin-offering 
fat 



a statute 



devoted thing, ban 



breast-piece, or sacred 

pouch 
to dip, immerse 
be clean, pure 



be or become unclean 



uncleanness 



ram, ram's horn 



liver 
priest 
holocaust 
idol-priests 



276 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



ns3 

V J - 









vai (Isa. 22:14), t^afetj/, 
Kadapi^eiv (Exod. 30:I0), 
irepiKadapi^eLP (Isa. 6:7), 
eKK:a^ap^^etj'(Deut.32: 43), 
dd(fovv (Isa. 18:23), a7'<i- 
fei;' (Exod. 29:33) 

5XXa7/ia, e^'iKacrixa^ irepLKd- 
dapfia^ Xirpov 

iXaffTi^piov, i^iXaa-fJios 

Xepov^ei/x, xepou^etv, x^- 
pov^iv 

XtTcij/, (TT0\-fj (Isa. 22:21) 

Kaipos, eopri}^ &pa, (Twrayfi 
(Judg. 20:38), Traj/^Yupis, 
ixaprvpia, 6pos (Exod. 9:5) 
6v(Tia<TT'^piov, /3a>yu6s 
^aX/x6s, v/ji,vr]<Tis, atv€<ns, 
T^pas (Isa. 24: 16), ^517 
p*^T'J5 (pLdXr), ^(xxdpa (2 Chron. 
4:11), KokvirT-fip (Numb. 
4:14) 
T^~nX 'isTQ TcXetovv T As x^tpas, e/MTrnrXdv 
rds x"pcis (Exod. 28:41), 
TrXi^poOi' rds x^P^'^s, 7rt/A- 
TrXdi'tti tAs x^'P^'^s (Ezek. 
43:26), TcreXeiwju.^vos (Lev. 
21:10) 
D"'i^l3')3 TcXe/oxris, TrXiJpwo-is, yXv^-^ 
D*'.npb'J3 Xa/SfSes, eirapvar'fjp (Exod. 
25:38), iTrapvffTpis (l 
Kings 7:49) 
nriDtt dvaia, ddpov, 6v<ria<TpLa, ^i- 
viov, Trpocr(f>opd 

riDD'JS TO x^^^^'^^^t X^^^^f^^i ^^^' 
d-^KT) (Isa. 30:1) 
b^lQ TrXrjfXfiiXeia, ddiKla, ddirrjiiia, 
ddecrla, dvo/xla, diroffTa- 
(ria, dirda-raa-is, dcvvdeffia^ 
X'^dr]^ TrapdiTTwp.a^ trapa- 
j8a/»'€ij' (Lev. 26:40) 

"Itpy'JS ScKdrrj^ to diKarov, iirid^Ka- 
Top, iK(l)6pi.ov (Mai. 3:10), 
dirapxv (Deut. 12:6) 

nnSItt ffT-^Xr), a-TrjXiocns (2 Kings 
18:18), o-rOXosder. 43:13), 
virda-Taa-is (Ezek. 26:11), 
e-ifiKv (Isa. 6:13) 



to atone 



atonement, ransom 

propitiatory 
cherub 



tunic 

appointed time, meeting- 
place 

altar 
melody, psalm 

bowl, basin 



install, consecrate 



consecrated 

installation 
tongs 

gift, offering, grain-offer- 
ing 
molten image 

transgression 



tenth part, tithe 



pillar, sacred stone 



APPENDIXES 



277 






®1I?^ 






T t 



t:BT2J)a 



nnnD 



n-ns 



T75 






nj^c 



(ifu/Lcos, TCI (5f"ujaa 
ivToXrj, ivTaKjxa, Trp6<TTayiJ.a, 
v6/xos (Prov. 6: 20), diKai- 
ufxa (i Kings 2:3), Kpi<ns 
(Deut. ii:i), pwo- (Prov. 
3:1), (puvT^i (Deut. 28:9, 
13), 656s (Ps. 119:151) 
TO dyiov, ayiaaTTiptov, rb 
iepdv, t6 TjyiaffiJL^pov, ayla- 
fffxa, ayiaa/j-ds, rekerii 
&pves, e(TTeaT(j)p.^voL 
XpieLV, dXeicpeiv, Siaxpi-^^-v 
Xp't<r/^a, XP^o-tJ, XPi-<^T^v 

(Tts, oJkos, ffwayuiy-fi 

(pvXaKT^, 7rpo0uXaKT7, Trpo- 
0i^Xa|, €(prj/x€pLa, irpba- 
rayfia, (p^Xay/xa, 5ia- 
T'qprjais, dTrod-^KTj, irapefM- 
poX-/i 

Kpia-LS, Kpi/xa, KpiT'^piou, aijy- 
Kptais, dLKaiuia-LS, dLKalwfj.a, 
diKaLCjavvTj, dUr), e/cSt'/CTjcris, 
didra^ts, ffdvTa^is, irpbff- 
ray/xa 

SQpov, Sbfia, dbtTLS 

eKo6(riov, db/xa, al'pecrts, d<pai- 
pe/xa (Exod. 35:29), bfxo- 
Xoyla, bfxoXbyus (Hos. 
14:5)? (T(pdyLOv (Lev. 
22:23) 

XwptO'/u.6s, ix€TaKlvr]ai,s, /xera- 
KiPo{>fX€vos, diroKadrj/Ji^vr), 
dKadapcria, 6velbL<Tp.a^ dcpe- 
dpo^, pavTia/xbs, dyvKX/xbs 

€vxVi bfxoXoyia, 8Qpov 

ev^dfxevos, 'Sa^Lp, T)yia<Tp.evos, 
pa^ipaios, dyvela, ayios, 
dyiaafxbi 

evxVi dyviafxbs, ay vela, dyios, 
dylacrp-a, Kadayid^eiv 

^eeaddv 

(Tirovbrj 

^adivifx, i^adavifx, ^adivaToi, 
'Adiveifx (Ezra 8:17), oi 
dedofx^voi 

fxirpov, fxeTprjTT^s, olcpi 



unleavened bread 
commandment 



sacred place, sanctuary 



fatlings 
anoint 
anointing 
tabernacle 



watch, charge 



judgment 



gift 

voluntary offering 



impurity 



vow 

one consecrated, devoted, 
a Nazirite 

consecration, Naziriteship 

the bronze serpent 

drink-offering 

Nethinim 



a measure of flour or of 
grain 



2/8 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



V 



my 
nbiy 



1^? 



ns3? 



nnsry 






;-! 



nps 
bos 

V V 



a-CfiidoKLS 

wapa^aivb}, irapipxoixai^ iy- 
/caraXetTreti', irapairope^e- 
(rdat. 

(Twaytayf) 

oXoKaijTCjfia, oXo/cai^rwcris, 
Kd/)7rwcris, oXoKapiroicris, 
KdpTrojfxa, oXoKapircofxa, 6v- 
(xla, dpa(f)opd, dvd^aais 

dStKt'a, d8iK7}/jt.a^ dfj-apria, 
dfxdpTTjfia, dvofiia, dvb- 
firjfia, irapavofxla, (Prov. 
5:22), KaKia (I Chron. 
21:8; Jer. 13:22; 16: 18), 
cto-^/Seta (Ezek. 33 : 9), 
atria (Gen. 4:13). 

d5o}\ov, yXvTTTou 

iepela (2 Kings lo: 20), depa- 
ireia (Joel 1:14; 2:15), 
dpyeia (Isa. 1:14), aivodos, 
i^ddiov, irav-qyvpis 

irapaTda-aeiv, a-roi^d^eiv, 
iwiaToi^d^eiv^ erotfMd^etu, 
Trapaa-Kevd^eivilsa. 50:42), 
TrpoTid^vai, irpocTTidivai 
(Exod. 40:23; Lev. 24:8), 
iiriTiOhaL (Gen. 22 : 9), 
Ko<Tfi€iu (Ezek. 23:41), 
atpeLv (i Chron. 12:8), 
Trapiardvat,, iaovv, ofioiovv 
(Ps. 40: 5; Isa. 40:18), 
^OTjdeiv (i Chron. 12:36), 
dvaXajx^dveiv (Jer. 43 : 3), 
iirLTpiireiv (Job 32:14), 
Kaieiv (Exod. 27:21; Lev. 
24:2, 3), K^vT€iv (Job 6:4), 
Tifidv, Tip.oypd(f)eiv ( 2 
Kings 23:35) 

beKarovv 

biKaTov 

/xlaa/JLa, dOvTov, /S^/St^Xos, 

fX€fJioXviJ.IJ,ivOS 

irdaxo-i 4>a(r^K 

yXvirrSv, e'ldioXov, dyaXjia, 
Trepi^djfXLOP, yXififia, eUdv 



anoint 
fine flour 
transgress 



congregation 
whole burnt-offering 



iniquity 



idol 



assembly 



arrange, set in order (the 
parts of a sacrifice) 



to tithe 

tenth part 

unclean thing, refuse 

passover 
idol, image 

bell on high priest's robe 



APPENDIXES 



279 



nDHS KaTairiTaa/Jia 



y©s 



yws 



D12 



cnp 






"it:?P 



nn-jp 

DDp 

i^ip 

T I 

nsTp 
nsn© 



ddireiv, aai^eiv, d(p(.<TTdvaL 
dvofieip, ddiKclv, dfxaprd- 
petv, ir\avdv^ dvo/xos, tra- 
pdvofjios, dfiapria^ irapa- 

dai^eia, ddiKca, ddiK-q/na^ 
dfxapria, dfidpTrj/xa, dvo- 
fxia, dv6/xr}p.a, TrapaTrrw/xa, 
irXdur}, dyvoi-a 

vrjcrreia 

pr}<TT€6€t.v, dcnrecv 

TTOS 

07105, Kadapds, Tjyiao'iJ.ivos 
dytd^CLv, dyvi^eiv, KadapL^eiv 

(Job l: 5), 8o^d^€iv (Isa. 

5.16), Staa-T^WeLV (Jos. 

20:17), Kadayid^eiv, dva- 

^c^d^eLP {]ev. Si: 2S) 
dyios, dycuxrvpr], dylaapia^ 

dyid^eiv, dyi.aa-fj.6s, dyvi- 

^eip 
Trbppr) 
iKKXrjaia, (Tvpayoiyi^, ox^os, 

avpibpiop (Prov. 26:26), 

<TTL)(TTa<ns (Gen. 49 : 6), 

TrXrjdos (Exod. 12:6; 2 

Chron. 31:18), \a6s (i 

Kings 12:3) 
dvpadp, 6v/iid^€ip, iiTLTLdepai, 

6ij€iP, dpa(f)^p€LP., Trpo(T(f>i- 

peip, i-mdveip, dvcnd^ecp 

(Exod. 40:27) 
dvfxlafxa., avpOeffLS 
/xapTeia, fxapreiop, olu)PL(rfxa 
bCjpop., Kkripos (Neh. 10:34) 
oajx-q, 6a(f)pa(xia (Hos. 14:7) 
daiiT] eiiudias 
8pKos, ^i'6pKios (Numb. 5:21), 

epopKos (Neh. 6:18). 
ad^^arop, ad^^ara, i^Sofids, 

?/35o^tos, dpdiravait 
(rdXirty^., KeparipTi 
crcjTirjpiop, €lpr]PiK6p., dvaia 

aojTTjpiov., (T(t)TrjpLa.i to toO 

(ToiT-qplov 



curtain (in tabernacle be- 
fore Most Holy Place) 
to rebel, transgress 



transgression 



fasting, fast 
to fast 
image 

sacred, holy 

set apart, consecrate, 
dedicate 



sanctity, holiness 



temple-prostitute 
assembly, congregation 



offer burnt-offering, offer 



smoke, odor, incense 
divination 
offering, oblation 
scent, odor 
soothing odor 
oath 

sabbath 



trumpet 

thank-offering, 
offering 



peace- 



28o 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



)m 


eXatoi', dXeififia, iriwv 


fat, oil 


ntptti^n nstj 


erosT^sd0^o-ews(Deut.i5:9), 
ipiavTos d<f>^<T€(as (Deut. 
31:10) 


year of release 


n^nr\ 


atvea-is, eiratvos, vfivos, yav- 
piafia, KwOxnt^o.-, aperri^ 


praise, song of praise 


nnin 


vrjs, i^OfMo\6yr]<XLS 


thanksgiving, praise 


nnrin 


j85Ai'7/xa, dKadapaia, uKd- 
dapTos, dvofxia 


abomination 


n^^in 


vdfios, ivToXi^, rb vdfjLifjLov 


direction, instruction, law 


n^sn 


irpoffevx-fl, ivxf}, d^rjais, ip.- 


prayer 


npinn 


dirapxVi d(f>aipepa^ d(f)6pL<rpa, 
d(f>opL<Tp6s, el(T(popd 


gift-offering 


D-<snn 


eiSwXa, 6€pa<ptv, drjXoi (Hos. 


Teraphim 



3 : 4), TCI K€voTd(pi.a ( I Sam. 

19:13), tA yXvTTTd (Ezek. 

21:21), oi diro<f>6€yy6p€voi 

(Zech. 10:2) 
D'^D^Dnr^ oiKTipiiids, dcrja-LS, TrapdKXrja-is 
npnri S^t^o-is, eXeos, irpoa-evxv, ^o-q 
D"^1Qri dXi^deia, TO. reXeia (Ezek. 

2:63) 
nplDri dirapxv^ eiridep-a^ dc^aipep-a, 

d7r65o/xa, d(p6pi<rpa, d6p.a 



petition 
favor, request 
Thummim 

wave-offering 



APPENDIX B. 



IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 

I. Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias. 
J. Hastings, A Dictionary of the Bible, Vols. I-IV (i 898-1 902), with an extra volume, 

containing supplementary articles, indexes, and maps (1904). 
T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encydopcedia Biblica, Vols. I-IV (1899-1903). 
W. Smith, A Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). 
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (3d ed. 

1896 ff.; fourteen volumes have now been published). 

II. Introductions to Old Testament Literature. 

S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897). 

J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1900). 

J. E. Carpenter, The Composition of the Hexateuch (1902). 

C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897). 

W. E. Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893, 1898). 

W. R. Smith, The Old Testafnent in the fewish Church (2d ed. 1892). 

C. H. Cornill, Einleiiung in das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1896). 



APPENDIXES 281 

H. HoLZiNGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893). 

W. VON Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alien Testamentes (1901). 

E. KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893). 

A. KuENEN, Historisch-critisch Onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verzameling van 

de boeken des Ouden Verbonds, 3 vols. (2d ed. 1885-89). German translation, 

Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1887-92). 

English translation of Vol. I, The Hexateuch (1886). 
G. WiLDEBOER, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de tijdsorde van haar 

ontstaan (1893; 3^ ed. 1903). German translation, Die Litteratur des Alten 

Testaments (1895). 
C. Steuernagel, Allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum 

Alten Testament," 1900). 

in. Hebrew Institutions and Archaeology. 

W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses 

Concerning the Pentateuch (1885). 
A. Scott, Sacrifice, Its Prophecy and Fulfillment (" Baird Lecture," 1892-93). 
W. VON Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889). 
W. NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894). 
I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894). 

IV. Semitic Institutions and Archaeology. 

W. R. Smith, Religion of the Se?nites (1889 ; 2d ed. 1894). 

G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins — Social and Religious (1902). 

W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885 ; 2d ed. 1903). 

Morris Jastrow, Jr., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898). German 

translation, being a revised and enlarged edition of the English ; Vol. I (1905). 
L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (1899). 
A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (1902). 
S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-Day (1902). 
'^'Ei.i.Vi.A\j?>^ii,Reste des arabischen Heidenthu?ns {^= Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 

1887; 2d ed. 1897.) 
Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions Semitiques (1903). 
SCHWALLY, Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer, Heft I (1901). 
Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 2 vols. (1876, 1878). 
Baethgen, Beitrdge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1888). 

V. The Code of Hammurabi and Hebrew Legislation. 

R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi (1904). 

C. H. W. Johns, The Oldest Code of Laws in the World (1903). 

C. H. W. Johns, Article " The Code of Hammurabi," Hastings's Dictionary of the 

Bible (Extra Volume, 1904). 
S. A. Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (1903). 
C. Edwards, The Hammurabi Code and the Sinaitic Legislation (1904). 
C. F. Kent, "The Recently Discovered Civil Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World, 

Vol. XXI (1903), pp. 175-90. 
A. H. Sayce, "The Legal Code of Babylonia," American fournal of Theology {\go^), 

pp. 256-66. 



282 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

D. H. Lyon, "The Structure of the Hammurabi Qo^t^'' Journal of the American 

Oriental Society, Vol. XXV (1904), pp. 248-65. 
V. SCHEIL, Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902). 
V. SCHEIL, La loi de Hammurabi (1904). 
H. WiNCKLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis (1903). 
H. WiNCKLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis in Umschrift und Uebersetzung kerausgegeben. 

Dazu Einleitung, u. s. w. (1904). 
J. KoHLER UND F. E. Peiser, HammurabVs Gesetz, Vol. I : tyebersetzung , juristische 

Wiedergabe, Erlduterung (1903). 
D. H. MULLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis und ihr Verhdltnis zur Mosaischen Gesetz- 

gebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903). 
H. Grimme, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903). 
S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903). 
J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (1903). 
G. CoHN, Die Gesetze Hammurabi' s (1903). 
A. RosENBACHER, Moses und Hammurabi (1904). 
Ed. Konig, " Hammurabis Gesetzgebung und ihre religionsgeschichtliche Trag- 

weite," Beweis des Glaubens (1903), pp. 169-80. 
Lagrange, "Le code de Hammurabi," Revue biblique (1903), pp. 27-51. 

VI. Old Testament Theology and Religion. 

H. SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (German, 1869; 5th ed. 1896; English, 1892). 
C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1892). 
A. Duff, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1891, 1900). 
A. Kuenen, The Religion of Israel, 2, vols. (Dutch, 1869-70; English translation, 

1882-83). 
A. B, Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament (1904). 
J. Robertson, The Early Religion of Israel {" Baird Lecture," 1889). 
Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament {i^?)t; English translation, 1893). 
K. Budde, The Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899). 
T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898). 

R. Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeshichte (1893 ; 2d ed. 1899). 
K. Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897). 
A. Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895). 

APPENDIX C. 

NEW LITERATURE ON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 

P. 63, note I— on Hexateuchal Analysis, etc.: H. G. Mitchell, The World Before 
Abraham (1901); Driver, Commentary on Genesis (1904); C. F. Kent, Beginnings of 
Hebrew History (1904); Tesch, Setzt der Prophet Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus 
(1895); Paul Vetter, "Die Zeugnisse der vorexilischen Propheten iiber dem Penta- 
teuch," Theologische Quartalschrift W o\. LXXXIII (1901), pp.94-112, 187-207. 

P. 71, § 71 — on The Priest: J. Taylor, art. "Nethinim," Hastings's Dictionary 
of The Bible (1900); A. Walker, "The Levitical Priesthood — a Study in Social T>t- 
ytlo^mtnt,'''' Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 124-31; Benzinger, 
art. ''l^QihXnxm,'' Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, 



APPENDIXES 283 

art. "Priests," ibid.; W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, art. " Levites," ibid.; Graf 
VON Baudissin, art. "Priests and Levites," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); 
Frants Buhl, art. "Hoherpriester," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantise he Theologie 
und Kirche Vol. VIII, (3d ed. 1900). 

P. 72, §72, topic 6 — on The Priest in other Semitic Nations: W. H. Bennett, 
art. "Molech, Moloch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible [iqoo); G. F. Moore, art. 
" M.o\oc\\,'' Encyclopcsdia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. " Nature-Worship," z'^Jza^. ; Idem, 
art. "Tithes," ibid.; J. Jeremias, art. "Ritual," ibid.; M. J. Lagrange, "Les pretres 
babyloniens d'apr^s une publication rdcente," Revue biblique, 1901, pp. 392-413; 
Spiegelberg, Der Stabkultus bei den Agyptern (1903); W. Wreszinski, Die Hohen- 
priester des Anion (1904). 

P. 80, §81, — on The Place of Worship : L.W. Batten, "The Sanctuary at Shiloh 
and Samuel's Sleeping Therein," Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 
124-31; O. C.Whitehouse, art. " Pillar," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1900); 
G. F. Moore, art. "High Place," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); G. A. Deissmann, art. 
"Mercy ^tzX" ibid. (1902); G. F. Moore, art. " Massebah," ibid.; Benzinger, art. 
"The Brazen Sea," /(^zV/. (1903); G. H. Box; art. " Temple, Temple S&iv\cq" ibid.; 
Benzinger, art, "Tabernacle," ibid.; T. W. Davies, art. "Temple," Hastings's Dic- 
tionary of The Bible (1902); A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Sanctuary," ibid.; Idem, art. 
"Tabernacle," ibid.; J. T. Marshall, art. "Shekinah," ibid.; A. H. Sayce, "Recent 
Biblical Archaeology; Tree and Pillar Cult," Expository Times, Vol. XIII (1902) pp. 
309 f.; W. E. Barnes, art. "Jachin and Boaz," Journal of Theological Studies, 1904, 
pp. 447-51; J. Meinhold, ZPzV Lade Jahves (1900); Idem, "Die Lade Jahves; ein 
Nachtrag," Theologische Studien und Kritiken Vol. LXXIV (1901), pp. 593-607; A. 
Lotz, Die Bundeslade (1901); K. BuDDE, "Die Urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade 
Jahves," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 193-7; 
W. RiEDEL, "Der Kultusort nach dem '^M's\^&%\iM<::\i, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen 
(1902), pp. 48-51; M.Verne, " Notes sur les sanctuaires de la region chananeenne 
qui furent fr^quentes concurrement par les Israelites et les nations voisines," Revue 
de Phistoire des religions. Vol. XLIII (1901), pp. 352-54; P. Torge, Ascherah und 
Astarte (1902); A. Buchler, Das Synedrium in Jerusalem und die grosse Beth-Din 
in der Quader-Kammer des Jerusale7n-Tempels (1902); J. Prestel, Baugeschichte der 
jiidischen Heiligtiimer, und die Tempel-Salomos (1904). 

Pp. 90 ff., §94 — on Sacrifice: Cheyne, art. ''Incenst,'" Encyclopcedia Biblica 
(1901); W. P. Paterson, art. "Sacrifice," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); 
S. I. Curtiss, "Discoveries of a Vicarious Element in Primitive Semitic Sacrifice," Ex- 
positor, 6th series. Vol. VI (1902), pp. 128-34; Idem, "The Origin of Sacrifice among 
the Semites," ibid. (1904), pp. 461-72; S. R, Driver, art. "Propitiation," Hastings's 
Dictionary of The Bible (1902); S. Langdon, " History and Significance of Carthagi- 
nian Sacrifice," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIII (1903), pp. 79-93; G. F. 
Moore, art. "Sacrifice," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1903); R. de la Grasserie, "Du 
role sociale du sacrifice religieux," Revue de Phistoire des religions, July-August, 1901; 
J. C. Matthes, " Zo&no^txs,'" Teyler's Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vo\. 11(1904), pp. 69-92. 

Pp. 104 ff., §106 — on Feasts: Cheyne, art. "Purim," Encyclopcedia Biblica {iqo2); 
Benzinger, artt. "New Moon," "New Year," "Passover," "Pentecost," Encyclopaedia 
Biblica (1902), and "Feast of Tabernacles," ibid. (1903); A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast 
of Tabernacles," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); J. A. McClymont, art. 



284 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

" Purim," ibid.; J. E. H. THOMSON, "The Samaritan Passover," Palestine Exploration 
Fund, Vol. XXXIV (1902), pp. 82-92; Belleli, "The High Priest's Procession on 
the Day of Atonement," Jewish Quarterly Review, October, 1904; W. Riedel, "Die 
drei grossen jiidischen Vest.e.,''^ Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen (1902), pp. 52-63; Fr. 
Buhl, art. "Laubhiittenfest," Realencyklopddie filr protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 
Vol. XI (3d ed. 1902), pp. 303-6; HOCHFELD, "Die Entstehung des Hanukafestes," 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 264-84; S. 
Hanover, Das Festgesetz der Samaritaner nach Ibrahim ibn Jakub (1904); B. D. 
Eerdmans, "De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift {i()0^), pp. 17-41. 

Pp. 114 £f., § 120 — on Sabbath: Toy, "Earliest Form of the '^a.hhdith,'" Journal of 
Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 191 £f.; W. R. Smith and Benzinger, art. "Jubilee," 
EncyclopcBdia Biblica (1901); Driver, art. "Sabbath," Hastings's Dictionary of The 
Bible (1902); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Sabbatical Year," ibid.: W. R. Smith, 
Marti, and Cheyne, art. "Sabbath," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1903); T. G. Pinches, 
"Sapattu, the Babylonian Sabbath," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 
Vol. XXVI (1904), pp. 51-56; W. Riedel, "'V>&x "^dXi^dXYi,'' Alttestamentliche Unter- 
suchungen (1902), pp. 74-89; BoHN, Der Sabbat im Alien Testament (1903). 

Pp. 126 ff., § 134 — on Clean and Unclean: A. Macalister, artt. "Leprosy" and 
"Medicine," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); A. R. S. Kennedy, artt. 
"Food" and ''W^^X's,,'' Encyclopcedia Biblica (1901); C. Creighton, artt. "Leprosy, 
Lepers," and "Medicine," ibid.; A. S. Peake, art. "Unclean, Uncleanness," Hast- 
ings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); S. A. Cook, "Israel and Totemism," y<?7£/w^ 
Quarterly Review, Vol. XIV (1902), pp. 413-48; Fr. Vinc. Zapletal, Der Totem- 
ismus und die Religion Israels (1901) ; L. G. Levy, "Du totemisme chez les Hebreux," 
Revue des etudes juives, Vol. XLV (1902), pp. 13-26. 

Pp. 133 f., § 139 — on Prayer: J. A. Selbie, art. "Praise," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible (1902); E, R. Bernard, art. " Prayer," ibid.; Cheyne, art. "Prayer," 
Encyclopcedia Biblica (1902); Justus Koberle, Die Motive des Glaubens und der 
Gebetserhorung im Alien Testament (1901). 

P- I35» § 142 — on Vows: W. H. Bennett, art. "Rechabites," Hastings's Dic- 
tionary ojthe Bible (1902); A. S. Peake, art. "Vow," ibid.; W. R. Smith and T. K. 
Cheyne, art. "Nazirite," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Vows, 
Votive Offerings," ibid. 

Pp. 140 f., § 151 — on The Oath: M. A. Canney, art. '' Osith.,'" Encyclopcedia Biblica 
(1902). 

Pp. 142 f., § 154 — on Fasting: Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopcedia 
Biblica (1901); J. J. P. Valeton, "Jets over Israelietischen Vastendagen," Theologisch 
Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXV (1901), pp. 521-29; M. Th. Houtsma, "Nog eenmal de 
Israelietische Vastendagen," ibid.. Vol. XXXVI (1902), pp. 334-41- 

P- I45» § 157— on Oracles, Ephod, etc.: T. C. Foote, "The Ephod,"/<?«r«a/o/ 
Biblical Literature, Vol. XXI (1902), pp. 1-47; A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Urim and 
Thummim," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible {1^02); G. F. MoORE, art. "Urim and 
Thummim," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1903); Elhorst, "De Ephod," Teyler's Theolo- 
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. II, No. 2 (1904). 

Pp. 146 f., § 160 — on Magic and Divination: O. C. Whitehouse, art. "Soothsayer, 
Soothsaying, Sorcery," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, (1902); H. Zimmern and 



APPENDIXES 285 

Davies, art. "Magic," EncyclopcBdia Biblica (1902); Cheyne, art. "Serpent," §§3 ff., 
ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Teraphim," ibid.; F. Schmid, "Die Zauberei und die 
Bibel," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, Vol. XXVI, pp. 1 07-30; H, Duhm, Die 
bosen Geister im Alien Testament (1904). 

Pp. 148 f., § 163 — on Mourning Customs, etc.: Morris Jastrow, "The Tearing 
of Garments as a Symbol of Mourning," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 
Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 23-39; R. H. Charles, art. " Eschatology," Encyclopcedia 
Biblica (1901); Benzinger, art. "Mourning Customs," ibid.; M. Jastrow, "Baring 
the Arm and Shoulder as a Sign of Mourning," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche 
Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 117-20; J. A. Beet, "The Immortality of the 
Soul: Before Christ," Expositor, Sixth Series, Vol. Ill, pp. 50-61; J. Garnier, Wor- 
ship of the Dead (1904); J. C. Matthes, "Rouw en doodenvereering in Israel," Theolo- 
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIV (1900), pp. 97-128, 193-224; Vol. XXXV (1901), pp. 
320-49; J.Wohlgemuth,/?/.? Unsterblichkeitslehre in der Bibel {i()Oi) ; G. Beer, Z>^r 
biblische Hades {ig02); Sartori, Die Speisung der Toten (1903); C. L. Deletra, 
Recherches sur les vestiges d''un culte des morts chez les anciens Hebreux (1903) ; J. 
Schreiner, Elysium und Hades (1903); F. Roux, Essai sur la vie apres la ??tort chez 
les Israelites (1904); F. Hrozny, "Zur Hollenfahrt der Istar," Wiener Zeitschrift fiir 
die Kunde des Morgenlandes {igo^), pp. 323-30; G. Wissowa, "Die Anfange des 
romischen 'Lox&w^inW.ts,''^ Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft [igo^), pp. 42-57; A. Lods, 
"Les Israelites croyaient-ils a la vie future?" Revue chretienne (1904), pp. 283-300, 
359-76. 

Pp. 150 f., §166 — on Circumcision: H. Gunkel, "Ueber die Beschneidung im 
alten T^sidiXiitiit,''^ Archiv fiir Papyrus- For schung, N o\, II (1902), pp. 13-21; P. Wend- 
land, "Die hellenistischen Zeugnisse liber die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 
23-31; Ulrich Wilcken, "Die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 4-13; Kutna, 
"Studien Uber die Beschneidung, IV," Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft 
des Judentums, Vol. XLVI (1902), pp. 193-205. 

Pp. 167 ff , § 181 — on The Deuteronomic Code : Cullen, The Book of the Cove- 
nant in Moab (1903); S. Fries, Der Gesetzschrift des Konigs fosia (1903). 

Pp. 180 ff., chaps, xiv and xv — on The Priestly Document: Driver, art. " Law," 
Hastings's Z^zV/z^warj/ of the Bible (1900); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Leviti- 
cus," ibid.; Idem, art. " Numbers," ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclo- 
pcedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. "Numbers," ibid.; G. B. Gray, Commentary on 
Numbers ("International Critical Commentary," 1903); J. Halevy, "Influence du 
Code Sacerdotal sur les prophetes," Revue semitique, Vol. IX (1901), pp. 1-6; 
Holzinger, A'Mw^rz erkldrt (" Kurzer Handkommentar," 1903); Erbt, Z)z> Sicher- 
stellung des Monotheismus (1903). 

Pp. 225 ff., § 245 — on Ezra and Nehemiah: W. H. Kosters and T. K. Cheyne, 
art. " Nehemiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1902); A. E. Cowley, art. "Samaritans," 
ibid. {1903); P. Riessler, "Uber Nehemias und Esdras," Biblische Zeitschrift, 1904, 
pp. 15-27, 145-53. 



Index 



INDEX 



Altar, 2, 16, 74 f., 76. 

Aramaic sections of Ezra-Nehemiah 

AND Daniel, 229. 
Ark, 2, 16, 18, 20, 75, 78. 

ASHERIM, 18, 20, 29. 

Atonement: day of, 5, 53, 96, 103 f., 
113, 142. 

Ban, 129, 138 f.; literature on, 139. 
Baptism, 269. 
Belief, i. 

Blessings and CURSINGS, 136-38; litera- 
ture on, 137 f. 
Blood: use of, 86, 89. 
Bull-worship, 18. 
Burnt-offering, 4, 18, 38. 

Calf-worship, 20. 

Canon: formation of, 34. 

Centralization of worship, 76, 78, 99. 

Christianity: pre-natal, 270. 

Chronicles, books of, 208-17; scope of 
history in, 208; date of, 208 f.; sources 
of, 209-11, 216; treatment of sources 
in, 211; use of genealogies in, 211 f.; 
chronological and statistical character 
of, 212; Hterary style of, 213; selection 
of material in, 213; religion of, 213 f.; 
idealistic character of, 214 f.; litera- 
ture on, 215 f.; numbers in, 217. 

Church: origin of, 196; purpose of, 196; 
and state, separation of, 34, 42, 43, 52. 

Circumcision, 149-5 j ; literature on, 150 f. 

Clan-god, 14. 

Clean and unclean, 32, 36, 119-30, 138; 
in early period, 1 19-21; in middle 
period, 121, 122; in Ezekiel, 122 f,; in 
later period, 123-26; literature on, 126- 
28; Hebrew words for, 129; among non- 
Hebrews, 129. 

Clergy: distinction between, and laity, 
38, 268. 

Community: Israel a religious, 43, 55; 
origin of idea of, 196; purpose of, 196. 

Conduct, i. 

Covenant: Book of the, 25 f.; Code, 
155 f. 



Curse, 136 f. 
Cyrus: policy of, 44. 

Dancing, 6, 15, 19, 20, 22. 

Davidic psalms, 23, 237-40. 

Decalogue, 24 f. 

Deuteronomy: discovery of, 29 f.; 156 f; 
teaching of, 31 ff., 165; authorship of, 
157-65; point of view and coloring of, 
159 f.; language and style of, 160 f.; 
material of, 161 f.; its relation to other 
Old Testament Hterature, 162 f; and 
the New Testament, 163 f.; a forgery? 
164 f.; structure and general character 
of, 165-67; literature on, 167-69. 

Deuteronomic writers, 167. 

Divination, 17, 145-47. 

Dream, 6, 17, 21. 

Drink-offering, 4. 

Ephod, 65, 120, 143-45- 

Esdras L: relation to Ezra, 228 f. 

Ethics, i 

Exclusiveness, 44, 55, 125 f., 175 f. 

Exile: significance of, 35, 195; return 
from, 39, 46, 51- 

Ezekiel, 37, 39; work of, 170-79; histor- 
ical background of, 1 70 f . ; prepara- 
tion of, 171 f. ; prophetic work of, 172 f.; 
dependence upon Jeremiah, 172; 
structure and character of chaps. 40- 
48, 174; genuineness of book, 174; ideas 
of chaps. 40-48, 175; Hterature on, 
177-79. 

Ezra: work of, 48; relation to Nehemiah, 
180, 181; introduction of law, 180 f.; 
law of, what was it? 181; relation of 
chaps. 40-48 to Priestly Code, 187 f. 

Ezra and Nehemiah: books of, 218-29; 
scope of history in, 218 f.; unity of, 220; 
unity of Chronicles and, 220 f., 225; 
date of, 221 f.; sources of, 222 f., 228; 
treatment of sources in, 223 f. ; style of, 
224; religion of, 225; hterature on, 225- 
28. 

First-fruits, 21, 31, 49. 
Fasts, 6, 36, 40, 45, 54, 103 f., i4i-43> 
269; Hterature on, 142 f. 



289 



290 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Feasts, 5, 15, 21, 32, ss> 36, 38, 53, 94- 
107, 176 f.; Harvest, 18, 21, 95; Vintage, 
18; at Shiloh, 19; of Ingathering, 21, 
95; of Unleavened Bread, 21, 32, 33, 
53, 95, 98, loi, 102; of Tabernacles, 
32, 33, 40, 53 f-» 95» 99» 102; of Pente- 
cost, 32, 95, 96; of Weeks, 33, 53> 95, 
99, 102; of Passover, 32, 38, 40, 53, 96, 
98, 100, loi, 102, 113; of New Moon, 
38, 40, 53, 97, 102; of New Year, 53; in 
early times, 94-98; in middle period 
98-100; in Ezekiel, 100 f.; in later pe- 
riod, 1 01-4; literature on, 104-6; of 
Booths, 95, 113; of Sheep-shearing, 
97; special, 97; influence of, 97; of 
Trumpets, 102 f., 113; of Purim, 104; 
Hebrew words for, 170; among non- 
Hebrews, 107. 

Future life, 14. 

Genealogies, in O. T., 217; in Chron- 
icles, 211 f.; in P., 202 f.; in Ezra- 
Nehemiah, 229. 

God, love of, 33; conception of, 45, 95, 
96, 107, 175, 188, 207; holiness of, 45, 
55> 107. 130, 176; Kingdom of, 174 f. 

Greek period, 56 f. 

Hezekiah's reform, 28, 82. 
High places, 2, 17, 22. 
High-priest, 47, 52, 65, 70. 
Histories: within the Hexateuch, 62; 

priestly, 62, 195-229; origin of, 196 f.; 

historical character of, 198 f. ; prophetic, 

197 f. 

Holiness — see Clean and Unclean. 
Holiness: of God, 45, 55, 265; of sanc- 
tuary, 55. 

Holiness Code, 63, 186. 

Idolatry, 31, 35 f., 84, 90, 176. 
Incense-offering, 4. 
Individualism, 43, 54 f., 173. 

Josiah: reform of, 30 f.; death of, 35. 
Jubilee: year of, 53, 114, 117. 
Judaism, 42, 46, 52, 54 f.; Cornill on, 57. 

Law: Levitical, 15, 43, 49, 50; Deutero- 

nomic, 15, 29, 155-69; early, 15 f., 20, 

24; codes of, 61 f. 
Laws, 7 f., 17, 19, 20, 44, 
Legal literature, 155-91. 
Levite, 18, 20, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 65, 66 f.; 

distinction between priest and, 39, 66 f., 

68, 69, 176. 



Literalism of priests, 257. 
Lord's Supper: the, 268. 
Lost writings of Hebrews, 217. 
Lot, 143-45- 

Magic, 54, 137, 145-47; literature on, 

146 f. 
Malachi: priestly character of, 40. 
Manasseh: reaction under, 29. 
Marriages: mixed, 48, 49. 
Meal-offering, 38. 
Messianic expectations, 44. 
Monotheism, 45, 55. 
Moon-feasts, 18, 32, 38, 109, 112. 
Mourning customs: 147-49; literature 

on, 148 f. 
Music, 6, 19, 20, 22, 40, 54. 

Nazirite, 134 f. 
Necromancy, 54. 
Nehemiah: work of, 47 f. 

Oaths, 139-41; literature on, 140 f. 
Oracles, 6, 21, 143-45; literature on, 
144 f. 

Passover, 32, 38, 40, 86, 96, 98, 125. 

Peace-offering, 4, 38. 

Pentateuch: origin of, 15, 19. 

Persian rule, 51. 

Personification in Old Testament, 
240 f. 

Pillars: sacred, 18, 20. 

Place of worship, 1-3, 14, 16, 17 f., 
i9f-> 3i> 33y 36, 37». 52 f., 74-82; in 
early times, 74 f . ; in middle period, 75 f. ; 
in Ezekiel, 76 f.; in later period, 77 f.; 
literature on, 78-80; function of, 82. 

Post -exilic period: characteristics of, 
42 f. 

Prayer, 6, 17, 18, 21, 22, 32, 36, 40, 45, 
54, 131-34; literature on, 133 f. 

Priest, 3, 16, 18, 20, 22, 31, 33 f.; 36, 37, 
38, 39, 47, 52, 63-73, 126J classification 
of, 70; sanctity of, 38, 68, 69, 175; 
support of, 18, 31, 47, 48, 50, 65, 67, 
68, 70, 84, 89 f.; in early times, 63-66; 
in Deuteronomic period, 66 f . ; in Eze- 
kiel, 67 f., 176; in later period, 68-70; 
literature on, 70 f . ; among non-He- 
brews, 72; outside functions of, 72; as 
mediator, 73. 

Priestly code, 62 f., 180-91; date and 
authorship of, 181-85; point of view 



INDEX 



291 



and coloring of, 182 f.; language and 
style of, 183; repetitions between P. 
and other legislation, 183 f.; discrep- 
ancies between P. and other legislation, 
184 f.; structure and contents of, 185- 
87; strata ^^^thin, 185; relation of Ezek. 
chaps. 40-48 to, 187 f.; principal ideas 
of, 188 f.; literature on, 189-91. 

Priestly element: limitations of, 257; 
corruption in, 257; essential teachings 
of, 264 f.; permanent truth in, 269 f. ; 
ethical influence of, 270. 

Priestly influence: basis of later, 195 f. 

Priestly narrative in Hexateuch, 
195-207; scope of, 199; gradual growth 
of, 199 f.; sources of, 200 f.; legislation 
\\athin, 201 f.; systematic character of, 
202; genealogical material within, 202 f; 
statistics and dates within, 203; repe- 
titiousness of, 203 f . ; selection of 
material in, 204 f.; theology of, 205 f.; 
literature on, 206 f. 

Priestly nation, 3, 36, 72. 

Priestly system: characteristics of, 258f. ; 
subjectivism of, 258; relation to proph- 
ecy, 259 f. ; purpose of, 261 f.; national 
character of, 2 6if. ; relation to Messian- 
ism, 263 f. ; relation to Greek thought, 
264. 

Prophets: Relation of P. toward wor- 
ship, 22, 34, 38, 40, 62, 65, 67, 70, 73, 
75, 76, 78, 84 f., 86, 90, 97, 100, 103, 
109, no, 135. 

Propitiation, 45, 50, 53, 54, 176, 189. 

Psalm: supersciptions of, 234 f. 

Psalms, 23, 233-53; of early period, 23; 
literature on, 23; of second temple, 
56; significance of, 56, 90; priest in, 71; 
scope of priestly element in, 233; non- 
priestly elements in, 233; problems of, 
233-44; tests of Davidic, 239 f.; Macca- 
baean, 242 f. ; priestly element in, 244 flf. ; 
of Ascents, 245; imprecatory, 253; 
Babylonian penitential, 253. 

Psalter: historical element in, 235 f.; 
David's contribution to, 237 -40; the 
"I" of the, 240 ff.; editorial element 
in, 243 f.; as a Book of Prayer, 246 f.; 
as a Book of Praise, 247 f . ; as a manual 
of communion, 248 f . ; significance of, 
for priestly system, 249; Hterature on, 
249-52; origin of, 252. 

Reaction under Manasseh, 29; after 
Josiah, 35; after rebuilding of temple, 
46. 



Reform of Hezekiah, 28, 82; of Josiah, 
30 f., 267; of Nehemiah, 47 f. 

Refuge: cities of, 70. 

Religion: its constituent elements, i, 13; 
most ancient form of Semitic, 13 f. 

Revelation: channels of, i. 

Sabbath, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 38, 45, 48, 
49, 53, 108-18, 150; in early times, 
108-10; in middle period, iiof.; in 
Ezekiel, inf.; in later period, 1 12-14, 
150; literature on, 114-17; meaning of 
Hebrew word, 117; among non-He- 
brews, 117 f.; origin of, 109, 118. 

Sabbatical year, 21, 32, 49, 53, 109 f., 
Ill, 1X2, 113 f. 

Sacrifice, 3-5, 14 f., 17, 18, 20 f., 22, 
3i> 34, 36, 38, 40, 53, 83-93, 205; 
nature of, 4, 14 f., 18, 20 f., 34, 45, 55, 
84, 89; kinds of, 4 f., 38, 84, 85, 88; 
materials of, 5, 88 f.; human, 21, 29, 
32, 84, 86; in early period, 83-85; in 
middle period, 85 f.; in Ezekiel, 86 f.; 
in later period, 87-90; Hterature on, 
90-92; Hebrew words for, 93; among 
non-Hebrews, 93; origin of, 93. 

Sages: attitude of toward worship, 71, 
92, 117, 128, 135, 148, 150. 

Samaritans. 50 f. 
Scribes, 52. 

Semites: contribution of, 13. 
Sennacherib's invasion, 28. 
Serpent worship, 18. 
Seven: use of number, 118, 140. 
Sin: conception of, 55, 90, 96, 103, 107, 
176, 188 f., 265 f. 

Sin-offering, 5. 

Skepticism, 47. 

Slaves: release of, 53, in. 

Songs and hymns, 6 f., 17, 19, 22, 23, 40, 

41, 54- 
Soothsaying, 54. 
Sorcery, 6, 18, 21, 22, 29, 32, 40, 137, 

145-47- 
Springs: as abodes of deity, 2. 
Stones: sacred, 2. 
Synagogue, 36, 43, 51 f., 53, 81, 267. 

Tabernacle, 2, 78, 184 f. 

Taboo, 120, 121, 138. 

Temple, 2, 20, 37, 39, 48, 52 f., 75, 77, 
78, 175; tax, 49; Samaritan, 50 f.; 81 f. 



292 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Tent of meeting, 2, 75. Vows, 6, 17, 18, 21, 32, 40, 54, 134 f., 138; 

Teraphim, 16, 17. literature on, 135. 

^'^38^40^ WORSHIP, 5, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, wave-ofpering, 5. 

TiTHEn2!^4o, 47, 48, 49- Witchcraft, 18, 20, 22, 145-47. 

rr^^^ ^^,, r Wood for burnt-offerings, 49. 

TOTEMISM, 1191., 121, 123, 124, ' ^^ 

^ WORSHIP 2 t8 Worship, i, 13, 34 f.; corrupt, 47; history 

IREE WORSHIP, 2, I». ^^^ g^ ^^_^^^ ^^ . pg^^^^^g j^ j^-g^^^y ^f^ 

Trespass-offering, 4, 38. ^3^ ^^ f.^ 27 f.; primitive stage of, 16 f.; 

Urim and Thummim, 18, 65, 67, 143- Canaanitish stage of, 16, 17 fif.; proph- 

, 7 j7 / o g^^^ stage of, 16, 19-22; Canaanitish 

^* influence on, 17; Babylonian influence 

Visions, 18, 21, 171 f., 175. on, 36 f.; literature of, 155. 



MAR 11 19C5 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: June 2005 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Dnve 
Cranberry Township PA 1606b 

(724) 779-21" 






htA 



